10 SAIDOV, ANARBAEV, GORIYACHEVA
resistance. The Ferghanans entered into an alliance with China, which repelled
the Western Turkic Kaganat and subdued Ferghana, renaming it Ninyuan. But
in 739
ce
the Turkic prince Arslan Tarkhan took control of Ferghana away from
China, and thenceforth headed the anti-Arabic movement.
By the seventh century
ce
, Sigyan (Ahsiket) had again become the major city of
the Ferghana Valley,
50
with only two other Ferghanan cities—Gesay at Mug-tepe and
Humyn—figuring in the Chinese chronicles.
51
In the first quarter of the eighth century
ce
, the Arab writer al Taraba mentions five Ferghana cities.
52
The eighth century “Sog-
dian Documents from the Mug Mountain” report the existence of a king of Ferghana
and a Ferghana
tutuk (representative)
. Foreign sources of the 500–700 period refer to
Ferghana as Faihani, Bohan, Pahana,
53
with its capital at Ferghana which, as argued
earlier, must be the same as the Eski Ahsi settlement at Ahsiket.
54
The other capital city of Ferghana at that
time was the city of Kasan, now
Kasansai, where the
tutuk of the Western Turkic Kaganate lived. This trapezoidal-
shaped city occupied several high hills on the Uzbek side of the Uzbek-Kyrgyz
border. This strongly fortified town, with six towers, had arisen in the first century
bce
and was now one of the most defensible places in the entire region.
55
A third
urban center of the early Middle Ages was Kuva, a classic three-part Central Asian
settlement with citadel (
ark), inner city (
shakhristan), suburbs (
rabad), and a major
Buddhist temple that functioned as late as the eighth century
ce
.
56
The regional
governor resided here.
57
All these cities gradually evolved from being mere castles with settlements
attached to being the economic and social centers of entire oases. They drew the
entire life of their respective oases into their well-developed markets, streets, and
buildings.
58
Religious life in this last pre-Muslim era centered at the Sulaiman-Too
Mountain near Osh, dubbed by Chinese chronicles the “city of the saints, or highly
sacred Mountain.”
59
The Turkic conquest of the valley led to a new phase of its development. Nu-
merous examples of Turkic runic writing have recently been found in cemeteries
and elsewhere, suggesting that Turks’ role expanded
from politics into culture
during the early Middle Ages.
60
Their rule also fostered improvements in animal
husbandry, creating more effective animal power for farming and manufactur-
ing.
61
The Turks’ arrival did not disrupt the continuity of Ferghana’s royal dynasty.
Continuity helped Ferghana rulers grow more powerful and to oppose any form of
mutual subordination.
62
Thus, on the eve of the Arab conquest, Ferghana thrived as
a powerful and self-confident land based on economically prosperous city-states
but without a powerfully centralized administration and with inter-city competition
the order of the day.
The first campaign of Arabian conquest took place in 712
ce
, headed by Kutteiba
ibn Muslim. Citizens of the Ferghana strongly resisted. In 715
ce
Kutteiba attacked
Ferghana for the second time and also rebelled against his own caliph, Suleiman
(715–717
ce
). But his troops did not support him and he was soon killed. Locals
still point out his grave in the village of Jalal Kuduk near Andijan.
THE PRE-COLONIAL LEGACY 11
The Arabs left governors in Ferghana and other places to lead local troops and
collect taxes; however, the people of Ferghana remained independent, relying on
the strength of the Turkic tribes. Around 720
ce
Ferghana was ruled by a strong
king named Alutar. In 723
ce
, he linked up with other Turkic forces from Chach
(Tashkent) to strike
a blow against the Arabs, chasing them the entire way to
Samarkand. A few years later another Turkic leader, Arslan Tarkhan,
63
ruled all
Ferghana and developed friendly relations with the Chinese.
64
Mansur (754–775)
forced the king of Ferghana to live in Kashgar and levied an annual payment on
him. However, the Ferghanans still resisted politically and militarily, and they re-
fused to meet the Arabs’ major demand—to embrace Islam. Under Caliph Mamun
(813–833) the Arabs sent troops once more against the population of Ferghana.
In the end Mamun granted governance over Ferghana and certain other provinces
to the Samanid dynasty of Samarkand, but even this did not mark the Arabs’ last
effort to subdue the region.
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