plough
bough
though
through
Historical studies of English spelling hold the key to how these spelling patterns involving
gh arose.
Students of the history of English spelling have shown that the use of
gh for
g at the beginning of a word is
the result of a historical accident (cf. Scragg 1973, Stubbs 1980). Caxton, the person who introduced
printing to England in 1476, though an Englishman, had spent much of his life on the continent, in Holland
in particular. He was not fully conversant with the conventions of English spelling and he brought back with
him many European compositors and setters, most of whom were Dutch. Their control of English spelling
was also far from perfect and their Dutch spelling habits interfered with the spelling norms of English. They
used
gh, as was the norm in Dutch, where English would have used
g. That is how
gost became
ghost, and
similar words came to be spelt with word-initial
gh. In some cases this tendency was reversed. For instance,
girl
and
goose temporarily acquired a letter
h after the arrival of printing and were written as
gherle and
ghoos.
But later they
reverted to their original g spelling (Stubbs 1980:51).
There is also a good historical explanation for the unpronounced
gh following a vowel. English
pronunciation has changed over the centuries but the spelling has not been revised to bring it up to date. At
one time the letters
gh after a vowel represented a sound like that guttural fricative / / heard in the Scottish
pronunciation of
och and
loch. Various changes in the pronunciation took place and words like
night and
light
became pronounced as /naIt/ and /laIt/ but the spelling was not revised to reflect these changes. In
sum, what might look like arbitrary spelling conventions may have some organising principle behind them
buried deep in the history of the language. We will return to the historical dimension in more detail in the
next section. Let us turn to the present. I shall now show that even where spelling is not phonemic, normally
it is subject to rules. But the rules tend to be leaky.
We will use the doubling of consonants as our case study. Although the use of a single or double
consonant makes no difference to the consonant itself, it is a useful clue as to whether the vowel preceding
it is long or short. By spotting the single or double consonant following a vowel you can tell that the vowel
in the first of the two nonsense words in each pair is short and the second is long.
[7.7]
Short
Long
ditter
dealer
hodder
hooder
tusser
tuser
The interplay of vowel length in the pronunciation and consonant doubling in the orthography has always
been important in English spelling. We will illustrate this with the example of double consonant letters in
spelling monosyllabic verbs ending in a consonant when the suffix
-ing is attached. This discussion draws
on Crystal (1988).
The data in [7.8] illustrate the fact that whether the consonant following a vowel in this context is
doubled as in
wetting (*weting), or not as in
waiting (*waitting), depends crucially on whether the vowel in
the verb stem is short or long; for this purpose a diphthong counts as a long vowel. (See the Key to symbols
used on p. xix.)
88 SHOULD ENGLISH BE SPELT AS SHE IS SPOKE?
[7.8]
a.
Short
b.
Long
hit
hitting
heat
heating
rid
ridding
read
reading
chat
chatting
chart
charting
mat
matting
mate
mating
whip
whipping
weep
weeping
wed
wedding
wade
wading
skin
skinning
scream
screaming
Should you encounter verbs like
fip and
spleed, which I have made up, you would instinctively know that
since the former has a short vowel, its final consonant must be doubled when the suffix
-ing is attached, to give
fipping
. But not so
spleed which has a long vowel.
It must be written as spleeding.
So far we have restricted our attention to monosyllabic words. But doubling is not restricted to
monosyllabics where a short vowel is followed by just one consonant at the end of a word. It applies also in
longer verbs. Contrast the words in A and B in [7.9]:
[7.9]
A
B
cushion
cushioning
compel
compelling
permeate
permeating
expel
expelling
exhibit
exhibiting
upset
upsetting
dismember
dismembering
refer
referring
stimulate
stimulating
equip
equipping
The pattern observed here is that the last consonant is doubled if the last syllable of the unaffixed verb
root is stressed, as in column B. If the last syllable is unstressed you do not double the last consonant. In a
few cases there are differences between British and American English, because this rule applies less rigorously
in America to words like those in [7.9]. The result is that a word like
traveling is spelt with one
l in
American English.
A relatively small number of additional rules is needed to cover words that violate our rule. I will
mention just one of them. At the end of a word, if the letter
c preceded by a vowel needs to be
doubled
according
to the doubling rules,
it is written ck rather than
cc (cf.
panic panicking not
*paniccing).
The doubling of the last consonant of a monosyllabic verb when a suffix is attached is more general than
I have indicated so far. It is not simply brought into play by the presence of
-ing. Other suffixes, e.g.
-er,
also
induce consonant doubling, as seen in [7.10]:
[7.10]
Short
Long
knit
~
knitter
neat
~
neater
wet
~
wetter
wait
~
waiter
sit
~
sitter
seat
~
seater
ENGLISH WORDS 89
Short
Long
shut
~
shutter
shoot
~
shooter
Consonant doubling rules are also sensitive to how vowels are spelt. Thus, a consonant following two
vowel letters, regardless of whether they represent a
short or long vowel, is not doubled:
[7.11]
Short
Long
spread
~
spreading
plead
~
pleading
head
~
heading
read
~
reading
sweat
~
sweating
leaf
~
leafing
Finally, doubling is used to underline the distinction between content words and function words. There is
an orthographic requirement that content words (i.e. verbs, nouns, adjectives and adverbs) must be spelt
with at least three letters. But there is no such minimality requirement applicable to function words: the
lower limit on the number of letters in function words like articles, pronouns and prepositions is one. So,
one-letter function words like
a and
I, as well as two-letter ones like
if, it, on etc., are allowed but putative
nouns, adjectives or verbs like
ad, od, as, eg, bo and
se are ruled out of court. In each case, to obtain a
properly formed content word all you need to do is double the last letter. This gives you
add, odd, ass, egg,
boo
and
see (cf. Albrow 1972, Sampson 1985).
Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: