EdData II: Data for Education Research and Programming (derp) in Africa

Continue to use L1/familiar languages to support learning in the L2/foreign 
language.
Maintaining the L1 and developing oral and written skills throughout the 
curriculum helps to maximize the benefits of interlinguistic transfer, as children can 
continue to build a strong L1 foundation (Cummins, 2009, 2012; Thomas & Collier, 
2002) and use those skills to learn an L2. If or when the language of instruction has 
transitioned from one language to another, use of the L1 to support instruction of 
academic content and for assessment is recommended. For example, new concepts can 
continue to be introduced in L1, then in L2. Terms and concepts can be taught in L2 to 
build vocabulary, and then reviewed in L1 to ensure they are well understood. Moreover, 
continuing to build proficiency in L1 will support ongoing L2 development. Because 
children may not be able to demonstrate well what they have learned in a foreign 
language, assessment should also take place in the L1 as needed. 
Language skills transfer: Key ideas to inform planning 
When children learn in an LOI that is not their L1, the curriculum needs to be informed by several 
research-based findings regarding which skills transfer from one language to another, and how.
First, research indicates that several skills learned in one language transfer to learning an additional 
language. For example, understanding that print represents speech and carries meaning needs to be 
learned only once. Extensive research also indicates that phonological awareness skills transfer between 
languages (Abu-Rabia & Siegel, 2002; Bialystok, McBride-Chang, & Luk, 2005; Cisero & Royer, 1995; 
Denton, Hasbrouk, Weaver, & Riccio, 2000; Durgunoglu, 2002; Genesee & Geva, 2006; Gottardo, Yan, 
Siegel, & Wade-Woolley, 2001). 
Therefore, for developing an appropriate approach to language use and instruction, it is important to 
analyze linguistic similarities and differences between the two languages. If the languages are closely 
related, then children will likely need less time to learn the new LOI than if the languages are less related 
(Chiswick & Miller, 2008). Under the USAID- and UK Department for International Development 
(DFID/Kenya)-supported Kenya Primary Math and Reading (PRIMR) Initiative, for example, English-
language instruction was designed such that letters of the alphabet that were similar to those in Kiswahili 
were introduced first, to build on children’s existing knowledge in a more familiar language. (For a variety 
of reports, evaluations, and instructional materials related to the project, see www.eddataglobal.org under 
Countries > Kenya; see also Piper, Schroeder, & Trudell, 2015.) This is because languages that are from 
the same language family often have similar vocabulary and grammar. As a result, children can make use 
of their L1 vocabulary and grammar and transfer the general knowledge of that to the new language. 
However, when there is little similarity between the languages, students will have to learn many new 
words and a new grammar system, which takes time.
Another aspect that influences instructional planning in terms of the amount of time needed to transfer 
skills from one language to another is the type of alphabet or script. When both languages use the same 
kind of alphabet—e.g., Kiswahili and English both use the Roman alphabet—then children can use their 
knowledge of Kiswahili letters for learning to read English. However, if the two languages are written in 
different scripts (e.g., Arabic and English), then the children also need to learn a new set of symbols and 
a different writing direction.
(continued) 

---

12 
Other characteristics of the languages, such as word length and syllable structure, are also important to 
consider. For example, in Spanish the word for corn, “maíz,” is relatively short, while in the Kenyan 
Saboat language, it is “nasumnyaanteet.” Whether a language has simple syllables like “ba” or more 
complex syllables like “shrik” will need to be taken into account in teaching reading strategies in the two 
languages (Schroeder, 2013; Trudell & Schroeder, 2007; Van Ginkel, 2008). When the languages are 
different in these aspects, then the children will have to learn different reading strategies to be able to 
read the new language well. 
The amount of time spent teaching the target language and teaching 
in
the target language at 
each grade level will depend on several factors—outcomes desired, the amount of time available 
in the curriculum, and when instruction is expected to transition from one language to another. 
Given the current conditions in many low-income countries—such as short school days, high 
absenteeism, high pupil-teacher ratios, current low levels of literacy in L1/familiar languages (of 
teachers, students, and communities), low level of exposure to L2/Lx outside the classroom, and 
limited teacher proficiency in the L2/Lx—learners will need to put in more time and effort to 
learn both a familiar language and an L2 sufficiently to allow for academic learning. However, 
success in a non-native language does not come just by exposure, and in many contexts it may 
not succeed for the majority of the population. Therefore, assessment and honest evaluation of 
outcomes will be necessary to determine whether a given approach is effective. 
Box 1 
presents a 
series of questions stemming from the research presented above on language acquisition and 
literacy development, as it relates to planning for language use in education. The questions are 
intended to provide USAID and stakeholders with information that can be used to help make 
decisions about an appropriate approach to using language for education, including which 
languages to use for instruction and for what purposes. Such discussions should include 
consultations with both education officials and classroom teachers about their everyday practices 
and experiences, which in turn should be compared to learning outcome data available for the 
country to ascertain the effectiveness of current approaches.