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399 
Proposition 
Comment 
There should be clear 
objectives 
and standards
set, so that each 
task has some meaning. 
Each stage of learning should present a challenge, without 
overloading trainees or making them lose confidence. Specific 
objectives and performance standards will help trainees in the 
planning and control process that leads to learning, and provide 
targets against which performance will constantly be measured. 
There should be timely, relevant 
feedback
on performance and 
progress. 
This will usually be provided by the trainer, and should be 
concurrent – or certainly not long delayed. If progress reports or 
performance appraisals are given only at the year end, for 
example, there will be no opportunity for behaviour adjustment or 
learning in the meantime. 
Positive and negative 
reinforcement
should be 
judiciously used. 
Recognition and encouragement enhance individuals' confidence in 
their competence and progress: punishment for poor performance 
– especially without explanation and correction – discourages the 
learner and creates feelings of guilt, failure and hostility. 
Active 
participation
is more telling 
than passive reception (because of 
its effect on the motivation to 
learn, concentration and 
recollection). 
If a high degree of participation is impossible, practice and 
repetition can be used to reinforce receptivity. However, 
participation has the effect of encouraging 'ownership' of the 
process of learning and changing – committing individuals to it as 
their own goal, not just an imposed process. 
1.3 Learning styles: Honey and Mumford (1992)
Different people have different 
learning styles
or preferences. 
The way in which people learn best will differ according to their psychological preferences. That is to 
say, there are