Bobonazarova gulxayo habibulla qizi spatial deixis and deictic expressions in pragmatics

1.2. Classification of deixis
In linguistics, deixis is traditionally understood as a function that correlates an utterance with the space-time coordinates of the utterance act.
K. Buhler distinguishes three types of deixis:
1.deixis visible - an indication of what is in the speaker's field of vision;
2. deixis contextual, or anaphoric, containing an indication to the previously used word;
3. deixis of representation, indicating that it is absent in the speaker's field of view and is not mentioned in the context, but is known to the interlocutors on the basis of their knowledge of the subject, and the knowledge was acquired before a given situation;
R. Lakov suggests dividing deixis into temporal-local, discursive and emotional. The first two types coincide with the classification traditionally accepted in modern linguistics - local, temporal and personal deixis. Emotional deixis occurs when, under the influence of emotions, the speaker does not observe the laws of functioning of deictic units.
C. Fillmore divides deixis into personal, spatial, temporal, social and discourse. Discourse deixis is associated with the choice of lexical, grammatical elements that indicate aspects of a given discourse. C. Fillmore does not connect discourse deixis directly with the text. In his opinion, in the language among the means expressing discourse deixis, the means for the oral and written versions of the language differ. Social deixis reflects some of the realities of the social situation.
G. Rau distinguishes the following types of deixis:
1) extralinguistic deixis;
2) deixis of attitude to fiction;
3) deixis of constructive fantasies;
4) text deixis;
5) analogous deixis;
6) unegocentric deixis;
7) anaphoric deixis;
O.G. Bondarenko rightly believes that deixis is associated with indicating the components of the situation as part of the reality reflected in the language, and since communicants, place and time of communication are the main components of these components, the main types of deixis should be considered personal, local and temporal.
In studies of the nature of deictic relationships, an important place is occupied by the study of the relationship between deixis and anaphora. Some linguists completely distinguish between these concepts, believing that deixis contains an indication of the elements of the situation of the speech act, while the anaphora contains an indication of the elements of the context. If deixis is focused on extra-linguistic reality, reflected in the content of the utterance, then it is actually deixis, or external deixis.
If deixis is focused on the internal organization of the text, providing the semantic coherence of discourse, then it can be called anaphora, or syntagmatic, or internal deixis. K. Elich, O.G. Bondarenko believe that this discrepancy is not fundamental, and often the indication can be both purely deictic and anaphoric at the same time.
R. Brecht distinguishes endophoric and exophoric types of deixis, depending on whether the center of orientation is inside the utterance or outside it. Similar classifications are given by D.A. Axelrud and M. Halliday. YES. Axelrud distinguishes situational deixis and textual deixis. Situational deixis includes personal, spatial and temporal types of deixis. In the textual deixis, which conveys the relationship between independent sentences, distinguishes between identifying, indicative, actualizing, indefinite, generalizing, qualitative, possessive and quantitative types of deixis, the means of expression of which are the corresponding determinatives.
For determinatives, the purpose of which as service elements is to attach the described object to a given space-time situation and corresponding communicants, deicticity is qualified as a basic, defining property. The basis for qualifying the property “deicticity” as a defining, basic one for all determinants is the significance of the sensory selection of an object with its conceptual identification and position in the spatio-temporal situation.
V.N. Yartseva gives the following definition of deixis:
“Deixis (Greek deixis - indication) - as the meaning or function of a linguistic unit, expressed by lexical and grammatical means. Deixis serves to actualize the components of the speech situation and the components of the denotative content of the utterance. The scope of deixis includes: an indication of the participants in a speech act (role deixis), expressed in various forms:
- pronouns (1st and 2nd l .: "I", "you", "mine", "your");
- an indication of the subject of speech (pronouns of the 3rd l.);
- an indication of the degree of remoteness of the object of the statement;
- demonstrative pronouns and particles ("this" - "that", "here" - "out");
- an indication of the temporal and spatial localization of the reported fact (chronotopic deixis);
- pronominal adverbs, for example lat. nic, nunc "here", "now".
Deixis as one of the methods of reference is opposed to the nomination; this opposition is neutralized in role deixis.
The carriers of the deictic function can be lexical units and grammatical categories. So, for prepositions and demonstrative pronouns, the deictic meaning is their lexical (dictionary) meaning, such words expressing deixis are sometimes called deictic.
Of the grammatical categories, the deictic character is inherent, for example, in the verbal categories of tense, taxis and person (role deixis: personal forms of the verb); the so-called category of politeness (an indication of the social status of participants in a speech act ...) also belongs to the deictic categories. In all cases, deixis is focused on extra-linguistic reality, reflected in the content of the utterance, i.e. is realized in the “material field of indication” (Buhler) and is actually deixis. This type of deixis (pragmatic deixis) is related to the content structure of the sentence. In addition, deixis can be oriented towards the internal organization of the text, i.e. it is implemented in the "contextual field of indication", providing the semantic coherence of the discourse; this type of deixis (syntagmatic deixis), in contrast to deixis proper, is called anaphora. An intermediate type of deixis is observed in some grammatical categories, for example, gender, noun classes, in which the sphere of indication is limited by the system of the language itself and is related to the formal structure of the sentence.
Deixis is a universal means of language, but the types and ways of expressing deixis in different languages vary.
If we analyze all of the above, we can conclude that the sphere of deixis includes several of the most popular types of indications:
- this is, first of all, an indication of the participants in the speech act - the speaker and the addressee; (1st and 2nd person: me, you, you, mine, yours, yours, etc.).
- an indication of the subject of speech - an object or person, which is expressed by pronouns of a third person;
- an indication of the degree of remoteness of the object of the utterance is expressed by demonstrative pronouns (this, that, etc.);
- an indication of the temporal and spatial localization of an event or fact (the so-called chronotopic deixis) is expressed by pronominal adverbs (here, now, etc.), as well as by the verbal category of tense;
This work examines three main types of deixis: personal, temporal and spatial.
For personal, or personal, deixis, specialized deictic agents are used. These include pronouns indicating the participants in the communicative act: the speaker and the addressee of speech (pronouns of the 1st and 2nd persons) [Arutyunova N.D. "The human factor in language" 1992, p. 194]. These deictic agents replace the gesture. And the involvement of the listener and speaker in a communicative act is an analogue of a gesture, since the act of speaking itself limits the participants in communication, indicates a specific sender and a specific recipient in the current signal exchange.
In the process of communication, the speaker and the listener are actualized entities, since the very act of speaking presupposes their participation and they are directly included in the communicative act. According to K. Buhler, “what is referred to as“ here ”and“ there ”changes depending on the position of the speaker in the same way as with a change in the roles of the sender and receiver,“ I ”and“ you ”move from one speech partner to to another and vice versa ”[Buhler 1993, p. 48].
Spatial and temporal deixis are closely related to each other. Since G. Reichenbach, temporal deixis is described using three concepts: speech time, event time, and reference time. In a statement like “Petya is reading a novel,” all three time points coincide. In the statement “Petya read a novel,” the reporting point coincides with the time of speech, and the time of the event precedes it. Finally, in the statement “When I came, Petya had already read the novel,” all three points are separate: the time of the event (reading the novel) precedes the starting point (the time of my arrival), and the reporting point precedes the time of speech.
In recent times, W. Erich made an attempt to extend these temporal concepts to spatial deixis. It distinguishes between the "place of the speaker", i.e. the place that is physically filled with it; "Denotation space", i.e. the space that the speaker designates with deictic expression; and "reference space", i.e. the space relative to which the denotative space is defined. These three areas of space do not coincide with each other, apparently only in the case of secondary deixis.
The concept of "speaker's place" seems to us not very productive. However, even if one accepts the generalization proposed by V. Erich in its entirety, it would be a mistake to think that temporal and spatial deixis are assimilated in quite the same way. They differ in some significant respects. Their asymmetry is manifested primarily in the asymmetry of the two main words - HERE and NOW.
In natural language, the principle of "deictic simultaneity" operates, due to which the time point of the report - now - is the same for the speaker and the listener. Meanwhile, the spatial points of the record for the quiet are different.
For spatial deixis, apart from the speaker, one more figure is essential - the observer.
In situations denoted by the classic deictic words HERE-THERE, THIS-THAT, the speaker and the observer always coincide in one person. There are, however, deictic words for which such a match is not necessary.
So, spatial and temporal deixis is carried out in the languages of the world by formal elements of two main types: noun phrases, including demonstrative pronouns or their analogs (in this forest, this year) and adverbial elements (here, today, now, [such and such a time ] back). In addition, in many languages for expressing time, there is a grammatical category of speech of the same name, there are also more complex spatial and temporal deictic expressions that indicate not directly objects, places and moments that coincide with the deictic center, but through them to other objects, places and moments (in the next room, nearby, last year, yesterday, soon, earlier).
The use of the past and future grammatical tense is also arranged, for example, "I will write an article" - an indication of a period of time determined in relation to the present moment.
In the work of M. Haspelmat, it was shown that in the languages of the world, temporary expressions (including deictic ones) usually come from spatial ones - to compare at least the Russian word past. This diachronic process is based on the universal metaphor "Time is space." As a result, transitional cases are also possible between spatial and temporal deixis. For example, in a statement like “You will see a gas station before the turn,” it is difficult to determine which type of deixis is taking place - “still” spatial or “already” temporal.
Importantly, in face-to-face interaction, shared physical context, as well as participants’ mutual orientation and mutual attention, allow a powerful set of multimodal resources to be exploited, i. e. gestures such as body and head movements, facial expressions, gaze, pointing, embodied actions and the handling of objects actualized by participants (e. g. Müller, Cienki, Fricke, Ladewig, McNeill & Teßendorf, 2013). All these practices help to conceptualize space, stimulate a shared focus of attention, simplify verbal expression, substitute a word or phrase for a gesture (e. g. as an answer to a question such as “Where is my umbrella?”, when the umbrella is in a location nearby) and foster the understanding of spatial deixis and dialogic development. Gestural deixis is also commonly used in order to identify objects without naming them.