35
bending over small diameters). UV coatings, too, have high a crosslinking density but may be
flexible as well. The reason here is that molecules with high numbers of functional groups form
narrow crosslinked molecules during chemical film forming, but due to the above mentioned
thermodynamic reasons, the reaction stops after the formation of molecules which have no large
extensions. They have a high crosslinking density, but cover only small areas of film layers. The
films are hard and resistant to solvents but brittle and less flexible. Selecting resin molecules
which contain fewer numbers of functional groups leads after crosslinking to networks with larger
mesh links. For thermodynamic reasons, these networks may have larger extensions than the
networks of high crosslinking density. Therefore, these network molecules cover larger parts of
the film layers, and that results in greater flexibility and better adhesion properties. But molecular
networks with larger mesh links are less resistant to solvents and chemicals, since, due to the
possibility of diffusion of different agents, they may swell or allow the penetration of those agents.
Of course, optimum coating films are expected to have both high flexibility and excellent resist-
ance to solvents and chemicals. Besides crosslinking density and extension of network molecules,
flexibility and adhesion properties are influenced by the mobility of the molecular chains of the
building blocks of resins.
On account of the conditions described, in most cases it is necessary to arrive at a compromise
on application properties, mainly through experiments. But, as mentioned above, there are coat-
ing systems which offer both outstanding flexibility and excellent resistance. The goal should
therefore be to compensate for the paradigm of high crosslinking density combined with high
flexibility. The reasons for high crosslinking density combined with high flexibility for wire enam-
els are the application conditions (extremely high crosslinking temperatures, low reactivity of
transesterification process, and application of several thin layers). Crosslinked UV coatings have a
high crosslinking density if the UV light is very reactive and crosslinking takes place even though
the molecular mobility diminishes during the process. The resulting networks have relatively
large molecular extensions and may be flexible as well. In the future, therefore, UV coatings will
cover much more application fields than currently if it proves possible to overcome the existing
application restrictions (see Chapter 3.8.8). The formation of interpenetrating networks (IPNs),
too, is an excellent way to optimise film properties
[27]
. Interpenetrating networks are formed by a
minimum of two different crosslinking reactions, and the idea is that the entire network consists
of different types of linkages. But simply by mixing two different crosslinking methods (hybrid
crosslinking), where in most cases the different reactions also have different reaction rates, leads
to optimum film properties
that are better than would
be
expected from a com-
promise
[28]
(see
Chapter
3.8.3.5). Additionally, com-
binations of two crosslink-
ing
reactions are chosen
if
the application process
offers
restrictions on one
of the methods. Such meth-
ods are called “dual-cure”
processes
[29]
. For example,
if it is difficult to crosslink
complex three-dimensional
objects and shadow zones
with UV light, the reaction
is
combined with isocy-
anate crosslinking.
Figure 2.9: Elastic modulus of polymers as a function of temperature
Film
forming
36
The efficiency of crosslinking for use in coatings is determined by testing the film properties. An
analysis of the elastic modulus (energy storage modulus) as a function of temperature
[30]
is con-
sidered to return a particularly good physical description. The curve of the modulus is an optimum
way of describing the state of crosslinking. Figure 2.9 (page 35) shows the elastic modulus against
temperature of a non-crosslinked polymer (thermoplastic) in comparison to a crosslinked polymer.
The unit of elastic modulus is the same as for viscosity. The values define the mobility of mol-
ecules or the resistance to deformation. Normally the resistance is relatively high at low tempera-
tures. That is called the glass state, since polymers are comparable to glass. At a specific polymer
temperature, the ability of polymer molecules to resist deformation decreases. The value may
drop over several orders of magnitude. It is believed that the molecules of the polymer can uncoil
themselves at this temperature. Over a certain temperature range, the polymer molecules can
become uncoiled but still have the ability to return to the coiled state. That temperature phase is
called the elastic state. The point of inflection on the modulus curve between the glass state and
the flexible state is the glass transition temperature (T
G
). Uncrosslinked polymers are changed
thereafter by increasing temperature into a melt state that exhibits the typical viscosity behaviour
of all liquids. Crosslinked polymers are unable to become a melt. The curve of elastic modulus
against temperature is flatter than that for thermoplastic polymers and the glass transition tem-
perature is higher. The values in the elastic state are much higher; no melting occurs, at best only
decomposition of polymer. The glass transition temperature and the modulus values in the elastic
state are measures of the efficiency of crosslinking – the higher they are, the more the polymer
is crosslinked or the greater is the crosslinking density. The elastic modulus as a function of tem-
perature is determined by making free films of polymers and subjecting them to dynamic forces.
The modulus is interpreted from how the film strip responds to the elongation forces.
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