Jewish Opposition Against Stalin
A vicious battle for the dominance within the Party was waged between Trotsky and
Stalin from 1923 to 1927. Later Zinoviev fought for first place, equally confident of his chances.
In 1926 Zinoviev and Kamenev, deceived by Stalin, united with Trotsky (the United Opposition)
— that is, three of the most visible Jewish leaders turned out on one side. Not surprisingly, many
of the lower rank Trotskyites were Jewish. (Agursky cites A. Chiliga, exiled with Trotskyites in
the Urals: indeed the Trotskyites were young Jewish intellectuals and technicians, particularly
from Left Bundists.
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The opposition was viewed as principally Jewish and this greatly alarmed Trotsky. In
March of 1924 he complained to Bukharin that among the workers it is openly stated: “The kikes
are rebelling!” and he claimed to have received hundreds of letters on the topic. Bukharin
dismissed it as trivial. Then Trotsky tried to bring the question of anti-Semitism to a Politburo
session but no one supported him. More than anything, Trotsky feared that Stalin would use
popular anti-Semitism against him in their battle for power. And such was partially the case
according to Uglanov, then secretary of the Moscow Committee of the CP. “Anti-Semitic cries
were heard” during Uglanov’s dispersal of a pro-Trotsky demonstration in Moscow November 7,
1927.
Maybe Stalin considered playing the anti-Jewish card against the United Opposition, but
his superior political instinct led him away from that. He understood that Jews were numerous in
the party at that time and could be a powerful force against him if his actions were to unite them
against him. They were also needed in order to maintain support from the West and would be of
further use to him personally. He never parted from his beloved assistant Lev Mekhlis, and from
the Civil War at Tsaritsyn, his faithful aide Moses Rukhimovitch.
But as Stalin’s personal power grew towards the end of the Twenties the number of Jews
in the Soviet apparatus began to fall off. It was no accident that he sent Enukidze to take
photographs among the Jewish delegates at a workers and peasants conference during the height
of the struggle for party dominance.
Yaroslavsky writes in Pravda: “Incidents of anti-Semitism are the same whether they are
used against the opposition or used by the opposition in its fight against the party.” They are an
“attempt to use any weakness, any fissures in the dictatorship of the proletariat… there is nothing
more stupid or reactionary than to explain the roots of opposition to the dictatorship of the
proletariat as related to the nationality of this or that opposition group member.” At the same
Party Congress, the 25th, where the United Opposition was decisively broken, Stalin directed
Ordzhonikidze to specifically address the national question in his report to the Central
Committee, as if in defense Jews. (Statistics from the report were discussed earlier in this
chapter.) “The majority of the apparatus is Russian, so any discussion of Jewish dominance has
no basis whatever.” At the 26th Party Congress in 1930 Stalin declared “Great Russian
chauvinism” to be the main danger of the national question. Thus, at the end of the Twenties
Stalin did not carry out his planned purge of the party and government apparatus of Jews, but
encouraged their expansion in many fields, places and institutions.
At the 25th Congress in December 1927, the time had come to address the looming
peasant question — what to do with the presumptuous peasantry which had the temerity to ask
for manufactured goods in exchange for their grain. Molotov delivered the main report on this
topic and among the debaters were the murderers of the peasantry — Schlikhter and Yakovlev-
Epstein. A massive war against the peasantry lay ahead and Stalin could not afford to alienate
any of his reliable allies and probably thought that in this campaign against a disproportionately
Slavic population it would be better to rely on Jews than on Russians.
He preserved the Jewish majority in the Gosplan. The commanding heights of
collectivization and its theory included, of course, Larin. Lev Kritzman was director of the
Agrarian Institute from 1928. As Assistant to the President of the Gosplan in 1931-33 he played
a fateful role in the persecution of Kondratev and Chayanov. Yakov Yakovlev-Epstein took
charge of People’s Commissariat of Agriculture in 1929. Before that he worked in propaganda
field: he was in charge of Head Department of Political Education since 1921, later — in the
agitprop division of Central Committee and in charge of press division of Central Committee.
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His career in agriculture began in 1923 when during the 13th Party Congress he drafted
resolutions on agricultural affairs. And thus he led the “Great Change,” the imposition of
collectivization on millions of peasants with its zealous implementers on the ground. A
contemporary writer reports: “For the first time ever a significant number of young Jewish
communists arrived in rural communities as commanders and lords over life and death. Only
during collectivization did the characterization of the Jew as the hated enemy of the peasant take
hold, even in those places where Jews had never been seen before”.
Of course regardless of the percentage of Jews in the party and Soviet apparatus, it would
be a mistake to explain the ferocious anti-peasant plan of communism as due to Jewish
participation. A Russian could have been found in the place of Yakovlev-Epstein — that’s
sufficiently clear from our post-October history.
The cause and consequences of de-kulakization and collectivization were not only social
and economic: The millions of victims of these programs were not a faceless mass, but real
people with traditions and culture, cut off from their roots and spiritually killed. In its essence,
de-kulakization was not a socio-economic measure, but a measure taken against a nationality.
The strategic blow against the Russian people, who were the main obstacle to the victory of
communism, was conceived of by Lenin, but carried out after his death. In those years
communism with all its cruelty was directed mostly against Russians. It is amazing that not
everything has perished during those days. Collectivization, more than any other policy of the
communists, gives the lie to the conception of Stalin’s dictatorship as nationalist, i.e. Russian.
Regarding Jewish role in collectivization, it is necessary to remember that Jewish
communists participated efficiently and diligently. From a third-wave immigrant who grew up in
Ukraine. I remember my father, my mother, aunts, uncles all worked on collectivization with
great relish, completing 5-year plans in 4 years and writing novels about life in factories [a
mainstream Soviet literary genre in the Twenties.]
In 1927 Izvestia declared “There is no Jewish question here. The October revolution gave
a categorical answer long ago. All nationalities are equal – that was the answer.” However when
the dispossessors entering the peasant huts were not just commissars but Jewish commissars the
question still glowered in the distance.
“At the end of the Twenties” writes S. Ettinger, “in all the hardship of life in the USSR,
to many it seemed that Jews were the only group which gained from the revolution. They were
found in important government positions, they made up a large proportion of university students,
it was rumored that they received the best land in the Crimea and have flooded into Moscow.”
Half a century later, June 1980, at a Columbia University conference about the situation
of Soviet Jewry, I heard scholars describe the marginalized status of Jews in the USSR and in
particular how Jews were offered the choice of either emigration or denying their roots, beliefs
and culture in order to become part of a denationalized society. Bah! That was what was required
of all peoples in the Twenties under the threat of the Solovki prison camp, and emigration was
not an alternative. The “golden era” of the Twenties cries out for a sober appraisal. Those years
were filled with the cruelest persecution based upon class distinction, including persecution of
children on account of the former life of their parents – a life which the children did not even see.
But Jews were not among these children or parents.
The clergy, part of the Russian character, centuries in the making, was hounded to death
in the Twenties. Though not majority Jewish, too often the people saw Jews directing the special
ecclesiastical departments of the GPU which worked in this area.
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A wave of trials of engineers took place from the end of the Twenties through the
Thirties. An entire class of older engineers was eliminated. This group was overwhelmingly
Russian with a small number of Germans.
Study of Russian history, archeology, and folklore were suppressed — the Russians could
not have a past. No one from the persecutors would be accused having their own national
interest. (It must be noted that the commission which prepared the decree abolishing the history
and the philology departments at Russian universities was made up Jews and non-Jews alike —
Goykhbarg, Larin, Radek and Ropstein as well as Bukharin, M. Pokrovskii, Skvortsov-Stepanov
and Fritche. It was signed into existence by Lenin in March, 1921.) The spirit of the decree was
itself an example of nationalist hatred: It was the history and language of the Great Russians that
was no longer needed. During the Twenties the very understanding of Russian history was
changed — there was none! And the understanding of what a Great Russian is changed — there
was no such thing.
And what was most painful, we Russians ourselves walked along this suicidal path. The
very period of the Twenties was considered the dawn of liberated culture, liberated from Czarism
and capitalism! Even the word “Russian,” such as “I am Russian” sounded like a counter-
revolutionary cry which I well remember from my childhood. But without hesitation everywhere
was heard and printed “Russopyati”! [a disparaging term for ethnic Russians.]
Pravda published the following in a prominent place in 1925 by V. Aleksandrovsky (not
known for any other contribution):
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