Tribesmen in Berlin in 1882, and anonymously. It made a huge impression on Russian and West
European Jewry. It was an appeal about the ineradicable foreignness of Jews in eyes of
surrounding peoples. We will discuss this further in Chapter 7.
P. Aksel’rod claims that it was then that radical Jewish youths discovered that Russian
society would not accept them as their own and thus they began to depart from the revolutionary
movement. However, this assertion appears to be too far-fetched. In the revolutionary circles,
except the Narodnaya Vol’ya, they did always think of the Jews as their own.
However, despite the cooling of attitudes of the Jewish intelligentsia toward assimilation,
the government, as a result of inertia from Alexander II’s reign for a while maintained a
sympathetic attitude toward the Jewish problem and did not yet fully replace it by a harshly
restrictive approach. After the year-long ministerial activities of Count Ignatiev, who
experienced such persistent opposition on the Jewish Question from liberal forces in the upper
governmental spheres, an Imperial High Commission for Revision of the Active Laws about the
Jews in the Empire was established in the beginning of 1883 – or as it was named for its
chairman, Count Palen, the Palenskaya Commission (so that by then, it became the tenth such
Jewish Committee.)
It consisted of fifteen to twenty individuals from the upper administration, members of
ministerial councils, department directors. Some were members of great families, such as
Bestuzhev-Ryumin, Golytsin, and Speranskiy, and it also included seven Jewish experts –
influential financiers, including Baron Goratsiy Gintsburg and Samuil Polyakov, and prominent
public figures, such as Ya. Gal’pern, physiologist and publicist N. Bakst. It is highly likely that
the favorable attitude of the majority of the members of the Commission toward resolution of the
Jewish Question was caused, to certain degree, by the influence of Bakst and Rabbi A. Drabkin.
In large part, it was these Jewish experts who prepared the materials for the Commission’s
consideration.
The majority of the Palenskaya Commission expressed the conviction, that “the final goal
of legislation concerning the Jews should be nothing other than its abolition,” and “there is only
one outcome and only one path: the path of liberation and unification of the Jews with the whole
population, under the protection of the same laws.” (Indeed, rarely in Russian legislation did
such complicated and contradictory laws pile up as the laws about Jews that accumulated over
the decades: 626 statutes by 1885! And they were still added later and in the Senate they
constantly researched and interpreted their wording…)
And even if the Jews did not perform their duties as citizens in equal measure with
others, nevertheless it was impossible to deprive the Jew of those fundamentals, on which his
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existence was based – his equal rights as a subject. Agreeing that several aspects of internal
Jewish life required reforming and that certain Jewish activities constituted exploitation of the
surrounding population, the majority of the Commission condemned the system of repressive
and exclusionary measures. The Commission set as the legislative goal to equalize the rights of
Jews, with those of all other subjects,” although it recommended the utmost caution and
gradualness with this.
Practically, however, the Commission only succeeded in carrying out a partial mitigation
of the restrictive laws. Its greatest efforts were directed of the Temporary Regulations of 1882,
particularly in regard to the renting of land by Jews. The Commission made the argument as if in
the defense of the landowners, not the Jews: prohibiting Jews to rent manorial lands not only
impedes the development of agriculture, but also leads to a situation when certain types of
agriculture remain in complete idleness in the Western Krai – to the loss of the landowners as
there is nobody to whom they could lease them.
However, the Minister of Interior Affairs, D. A. Tolstoy, agreed with the minority of the
Commission: the prohibition against new land-leasing transactions would not be repealed. The
Palenskaya Commission lasted for five years, until 1888, and in its work the liberal majority
always clashed with the conservative minority. From the beginning, Count Tolstoy certainly had
no intention to revise the laws to increase the repressive measures, and the 5-year existence of
the Palenskaya Commission confirms this.
At that moment His Majesty also did not wish to influence the decisions of his
government on the matter of the increase of repressions against Jews. Ascending to the throne at
such a dramatic moment, Alexander III did not hasten either to replace liberal officials, nor to
choose a harsh political course: for long time he carefully examined things. In the course of the
entire reign of Alexander III, the question about a general revision of the legislation about the
Jews remained open. But by 1886-87, His Majesty’s view already leaned toward hardening of
the partial restrictions on the Jews and so the work of the Commission did not produce any
visible result.
One of the first motivations for stricter control or more constraint on the Jews than during
his father’s reign was the constant shortfall of Jewish conscripts for military service; it was
particularly noticeable when compared to conscription of Christians. According to the Charter of
1874, which abolished recruiting, compulsory military service was now laid on all citizens
without any difference in social standing, but with the stipulation that those unfit for service
would be replaced: Christians with Christians, and Jews with Jews.
In the case of Jews there were difficulties in implementation of that rule as there was both
straightforward emigration of conscripts and their evasion of service, which all benefited from
great confusion and negligence in the official records on Jewish population, in the keeping of
vital statistics, in the reliability of information about the family situation and exact place of
residence of conscripts.
The tradition of all these uncertainties stretched back to the times of the Kahals, a
theocratic organizational structure that originated in ancient Israelite society, and was
consciously maintained for easing the tax burden. In 1883 and 1884, there were many occasions
when Jewish recruits, contrary to the law, were arrested simply upon suspicion that they might
disappear.
This method was first applied to Christian recruits, but sporadically. In some places they
began to demand photographs from the Jewish recruits, a very unusual requirement for that time.
And in 1886 a highly constraining law was issued, including several measures for providing for
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regular fulfillment of military conscription by Jews, which established a 300-ruble fine from the
relatives of each Jew who evaded military call-up. From 1887 they stopped allowing Jews to
apply for the examination for officer rank. Educated soldiers had privileges in choosing military
specialty in the course of service. (During the reign of Alexander II, the Jews could serve in the
officers’ ranks.) But officer positions in military medicine always remained open to Jews.
Yet if we consider that in the same period up to 20 million other aliens of the Empire
were completely freed from compulsory military service, then wouldn’t it be better to free the
Jews of it altogether, thus offsetting their other constraints with such a privilege? Or was it the
legacy of the idea of Nicholas I continuing here – to graft the Jews into Russian society through
military service? To occupy the idle?
At the same time, Jews on the whole flocked into institutions of learning. From 1876 to
1883, the number of Jews in gymnasiums and gymnasium preparatory schools almost doubled,
and from 1878 to 1886 – for an 8-year period – the number of Jewish students in the universities
increased six times and reached 14.5 percent. By the end of the reign of Alexander II they were
receiving alarming complaints from the regional authorities about this. Thus, in 1878 the
Governor of the Minsk Guberniya reported that “being wealthier, the Jews can bring up their
children better than the Russians; the material condition of the Jewish pupils is better than that of
Christians, and therefore in order that the Jewish element does not overwhelm the remaining
population, it is necessary to introduce a quota system for the admission of Jews into secondary
schools.” Next, after disturbances in several southern gymnasiums in 1880, the Trustee of the
Odessa School District publicly came out with a similar idea. And in 1883 and 1885 two
successive Novorossiysk (Odessa) General-Governors stated that an over-filling of learning
institutions with Jews was taking place there, and it is either necessary to limit the number of
Jews in the gymnasiums and gymnasium preparatory schools to 15 percent of the general number
of pupils, or to a fairer norm, equal to the proportion of the Jewish population to the whole. By
1881, Jews made up 75 percent of the general number of pupils in several gymnasiums of the
Odessa District. In 1886, a report was made by the Governor of Kharkov Guberniya,
complaining about the influx of Jews to the common schools.
In all these instances, the ministers did not deem it possible to adopt general restrictive
solutions, and only directed the reports for consideration to the Palenskaya Commission, where
they did not receive support.
From the 1870s onward, students become primary participants in the revolutionary
excitement. After the assassination of Alexander II, the general intention to put down the
revolutionary movement could not avoid student revolutionary nests, and the senior classes of
the gymnasiums were already supplying them. Within the government there arose the alarming
connection that together with the increase of Jews among the students, the participation of
students in the revolutionary movement noticeably increased. Among the higher institutions of
learning, the Medical-Surgical Academy (later the Military-Medical Academy) was particularly
revolutionized. Jews were very eager to enter it, and the names of Jewish students of this
academy began already appearing in the court trials of the 1870s. And so the first special
restrictive measure of 1882 restricted Jewish admissions to the Military-Medical Academy to an
upper limit of 5%.
In 1883, a similar order followed with respect to the Mining Institute; and in 1884 a
similar quota was established at the Institute of Communications. In 1885, the admission of Jews
to the Kharkov Technological Institute was limited to 10%, and in 1886 their admission to the
Kharkov Veterinary Institute was completely discontinued, since the city of Kharkov was always
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a center of political agitation, and the residence of Jews there in more or less significant numbers
is generally undesirable and even dangerous. Thus, they thought to weaken the crescendo of
revolutionary waves.
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