Who Was Really Behind The Pogroms?
The causes of those first pogroms were persistently examined and discussed by
contemporaries. As early as 1872, after the Odessa pogrom, the General-Governor of the
Southwestern Krai warned in a report that similar events could happen in his Krai also, for “here
the hatred and hostility toward Jews has a historical basis, and only the material dependence of
the peasants upon Jews together with the measures of the administration currently holds back an
indignant explosion of the Russian population against the Jewish tribe.” The General-Governor
reduced the essence of the matter to economics, as he reckoned and evaluated the business and
manufacturing property in Jewish hands in the Southwestern Krai, and pointed to the fact that
“being increasingly engaged in the rent of landed estates, the Jews have re-rented and shifted this
land to the peasants on very difficult terms.” And such a causation received wide recognition in
1881 which was full of pogroms.
In the spring of 1881, Loris-Melikov also reported to His Majesty: “The deep hatred of
the local population toward the Jews who enslave it lies at the foundation of the present
disorders, but ill-intentioned people have undoubtedly exploited this opportunity.”
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And thus explained the newspapers of the time: examining the causes which provoked
the pogroms, only a few organs of the periodical press refer to the tribal and religious hatred; the
rest think that the pogrom movement arose on economic grounds; in so doing, some see a protest
in the unruly behaviors directed specially against the Jews, in light of their economic dominance
over the Russian population. Yet others maintained that the mass of the people, in general
squeezed economically, looked for someone to vent their anger on and the Jews fit this purpose
because of their having little rights. A contemporary of these pogroms, the cited educator, V.
Portugalov, also said “In the Jewish pogroms of the 1880s, I saw an expression of protest by the
peasants and the urban poor against social injustice.” Ten years later, Yu. I. Gessen emphasized,
that the Jewish population of the southern guberniyas in general was able to find sources of
livelihood among the Jewish capitalists, while the local peasantry went through extremely
difficult times as it did not have enough land, to which the wealthy Jews contributed in part, by
re-renting the landowner’s lands and raising the rental fee beyond the ability of the peasants.
Let us not leave out still another witness, known for his impartiality and thoughtfulness,
whom no one has accused of being reactionary or of anti-Semitism – Gleb Uspenskiy. At the
beginning of the 1980s, he wrote: “The Jews were beaten up, namely because they amassed a
fortune on other people’s needs, other people’s work, and did not make bread with their own
hands. Under canes and lashes, you see, the people endured the rule of the Tatar and the German,
but when the Yid began to harass the people for a ruble – they did not take it!”
But we should note that when soon after the pogroms a deputation of prominent Jews
from the capital, headed by Baron G. Gintsburg, came to Alexander III at the beginning of May
1881, His Majesty confidently estimated that “in the criminal disorders in the south of Russia,
the Jews served only as a pretext, that this business was the hand of the anarchists.” And in those
same days, the brother of the Czar, the Grand Prince Vladimir Alexandrovich, announced to the
same Gintsburg, that “the disorders, as is now known by the government, have their sources not
exclusively agitation against the Jews, but an aspiration to the work of sedition in general.” And
the General-Governor of the Southwestern Krai also reported, that “the general excited condition
of the population is the responsibility of propagandists.” In this the authorities turned out to be
well-informed. Such quick statements from them reveal that the authorities did not waste time in
investigation. But because of the usual misunderstanding of the Russian administration of that
time, and its incomprehension of the role of publicity, they did not report the results of the
investigation to the public. Sliozberg blames that on the central authority in that it did not even
make attempts to vindicate itself of accusations of permitting the pogroms. (True, but after all, it
accused the government, as we saw, of deliberate instigation and guidance of the pogroms. It is
absurd to start with proof that you are not a criminal.)
Yet not everyone wanted to believe that the incitements came from the revolutionaries.
Here a Jewish memoirist from Minsk recalls: “for Jews, Alexander II was not a Liberator – he
did not do away with the Jewish Pale of Settlement, and although the Jews sincerely mourned his
death, they did not say a single bad word against the revolutionaries; they spoke with respect
about them, that they were driven by heroism and purity of thought.” And during the spring and
summer pogroms of 1881, they did not in any way believe that the socialists incited toward
them: it was all because of the new Czar and his government. The government wished for the
pogroms, it had to have a scapegoat. And now, when reliable witnesses from the South later
indeed confirmed that the socialists engineered them, they continued to believe that it was the
fault of the government.
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However, toward the start of the 20th century, thorough authors admitted: “In the press
there is information about the participation of separate members of the Narodnaya Vol’ya
[People’s Will] in the pogroms; but the extent of this participation is still not clear. … Judging by
the party organ, members of the party considered the pogroms as a sort of revolutionary activity,
suggesting that the pogroms were training the people for revolutionary action, that the action
which was easiest of all to direct against the Jews now could in its further development, come
down on the nobles and officials. Accordingly, proclamations calling for an attack on the Jews
were prepared.” Today, it is only superficially talked about, like something generally known:
both members of Narodnaya Vol’ya and the Black Repartition was prepared to stir rebellion to
any fertile soil, including anti-Semitism.
From emigration, Tkachev, irrepressible predecessor of Lenin in conspiratorial tactics,
welcomed the broadening pogrom movement.
Indeed, the Narodovol’tsi and the weaker Chernoperedel’tsi [members of Black
Repartition] could not wait much longer after the murder of the Czar which did not cause the
instantaneous mass revolution which had been predicted and expected by them. With such a state
of general bewilderment of minds after the murder of the Czar-Liberator, only a slight push was
needed for the reeling minds to re-incline into any direction.
In that generally unenlightened time, that re-inclination could probably have happened in
different ways. For example, there was then such a popular conception that the Czar was killed
by nobles, in revenge for the liberation of the peasants. In Ukraine, anti-Jewish motives existed.
Still, it is possible the first movements of spring 1881 anticipated the plot of the Narodovol’tsi -
but right then and there they suggested which way the wind would blow: it went against the Jews
- never lose touch with the people! A movement from the heart of the masses - Of course! Why
not use it? Beat the Jews, and later we will get to the landowners! And now the unsuccessful
pogroms in Odessa and Ekaterinoslav were most likely exaggerated by the Narodniks. The
movement of the pogromists along the railroads, and participation of the railroad workers in the
pogroms—everything points to the instigation of pogroms by easily mobile agitators, especially
with that particularly inciting rumor that “they are hiding the order of the Czar,” namely to beat
the Jews for the murder of his father.
The public prosecutor of the Odessa Judicial Bureau thus emphasized that in perpetrating
the Jewish pogroms, the people were completely convinced of the legality of their actions, firmly
believing in the existence of a Czar’s decree allowing and even authorizing the destruction of
Jewish property. And according to Gessen, “the realization that had taken root in the people that
the Jews stood outside of the law, and that the authorities defending the Jews could not come out
against the people – had now taken effect.” The Narodovol’tsi wanted to use this imaginary
notion.
A few such revolutionary leaflets are preserved for history. Such a leaflet from 30 August
1881 is signed by the Executive Committee of the Narodnaya Vol’ya and reads straight away in
Ukrainian:
“Who seized the land, forests, and taverns? The Yid. From whom, muzhik peasant, do
you have to ask for access to your land, at times hiding tears? From Yids. Wherever you look,
wherever you ask, the Yids are everywhere. The Yid insults people and cheats them; drinks their
blood”…and it concludes with the appeal: “Honest working people! Free yourselves!” Later, in
the newspaper Narodnaya Vol’ya No. 6: “All attention of the defending people is now
concentrated, hastily and passionately, on the merchants, tavern keepers, and moneylenders; in a
word, on the Jews, on this local bourgeoisie, who avariciously rob working people like nowhere
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else.” And after, in a forward to a leaflet of the Narodnaya Vol’ya (already in 1883), some
“corrections”: “the pogroms began as a nationwide movement, but not against the Jews as Jews,
but against Yids; that is, exploiter peoples.”
In the said leaflet Zerno, the Chernoperedel’tsi: “The working people cannot withstand
the Jewish robbery anymore. Wherever one goes, almost everywhere he runs into the Jew-Kulak.
The Jew owns the taverns and pubs; the Jew rents land from the landowners, and then re-rents it
at three times higher to the peasant; he buys the wholesale yields of crop and engages in usury,
and in the process charges such interest rates, that the people outright call them ‘Yiddish
rates’…”
“This is our blood!” said the peasants to the police officials who came to seize the Jewish
property back from them. But the same “correction” is in Zerno: “…and far from all among the
Jews are wealthy…not all of them are kulaks…Discard hostility toward differing peoples and
differing faiths and unite with them against the common enemy: the Czar, the police, the
landowners, and the capitalists.”
However these “corrections” came quite late in the day. Such leaflets were later
reproduced in Elizavetgrad and other cities of the South; and in the South Russian Worker’s
Soviet in Kiev, where the pogroms were already over, the Narodniks tried to stir them up again
in 1883, hoping to renew, and through them to spread the Russian-wide revolution.
Of course, the pogrom wave in the South was extensively covered in the contemporary
press in the capital. In the “reactionary” Moskovskiye Vedomosti the writer M. N. Katkov, who
always defended the Jews, branded the pogroms as originating with “malicious intriguers who
intentionally darkened the popular consciousness, forcing people to solve the Jewish Question,
albeit not by a path of thorough study, but with the help of raised fists.”
The articles by prominent writers stand out. I. S. Aksakov, a steadfast opponent of
complete civil liberty for the Jews, attempted to warn the government against too daring steps on
this path, as early as the end of the 1850s. When a law came out allowing Jews with higher
degrees to be employed in the administration, he objected (1862) saying that the Jews are “a
bunch of people who completely reject Christian teachings, the Christian ideal and code of
morality and therefore, the entire foundation of Russian society, and practice a hostile and
antagonistic faith.” He was against political emancipation of the Jews, though he did not reject
their equalization in purely civil rights, in order that the Jewish people could be provided
complete freedom in daily life, self-management, development, enlightenment, commerce, and
even allowing them to reside in all of Russia. In 1867 he wrote that economically speaking “we
should talk not about emancipation for Jews, but rather about the emancipation of Russians from
Jews.” He noted the blank indifference of the liberal press to the conditions of peasant’s life and
their needs. And now Aksakov explained the wave of pogroms in 1881 as a manifestation of the
popular anger against “the Jewish yoke over the Russian local people”; that’s why during the
pogroms, there was an absence of theft, only the destruction of property and a kind of simple-
hearted conviction in the justness of their actions; and he repeated, that it was worth putting the
question not about Jews enjoying equal rights with Christians, but about the equal rights of
Christians with Jews, about abolishing factual inequality of the Russian population in the face of
the Jews.
On the other hand, an article by M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin was full of indignation:
“History has never drawn on its pages a question more difficult, more devoid of humanity, and
more tortuous, than the Jewish Question…There is not a more inhumane and mad legend than
that coming out from the dark ravines of the distant past…carrying the mark of disgrace,
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alienation, and hatred…Whatever the Jew undertakes, he always remains stigmatized.”
Shchedrin did not deny that “a significant contingent of moneylenders and exploiters of various
kinds are enlisted from the Jews,” but he asked, can we really place blame on the whole Jewish
tribe, on account of one type?
Examining the whole discussion of that time, a present-day Jewish author writes: “the
liberal, and conditionally speaking, progressive press was defending the thugs.” And the pre-
revolutionary Jewish Encyclopedia comes to a similar conclusion: “Yet in the progressive
circles, sympathies toward the woes of the Jewish people were not displayed sufficiently …they
looked at this catastrophe from the viewpoint of the aggressor, presenting him as destitute
peasant, and completely ignoring the moral sufferings and material situation of the mobbed
Jewish people.” And even the radical Patriotic Notes evaluated it thus: “the people rose up
against the Jews because they took upon themselves the role of pioneers of capitalism, because
they live according to the new truth and confidently draw their own comfortable prosperity from
that new source at the expense of the surrounding community,” and therefore, “it was necessary
that the people be protected from the Jew, and the Jew from the people”, and for this the
condition of the peasant needs to be improved.
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