Understanding Psychology (10th Ed)

fetal alcohol syndrome
The most 
common cause of mental retardation in 
newborns, occurring when the mother 
uses alcohol during pregnancy.
familial retardation
Mental retarda-
tion in which no apparent biological 
defect exists but there is a history of 
retardation in the family.
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Module 27 
Variations in Intellectual Ability 
297
PsychWork
DIRECTOR OF SPECIAL 
EDUCATION
Name: 
Shannon Lynch
Position: 
Director of Special Education
Education: 
BA, Liberal Studies, Northern Arizona 
University, Flagstaff , Arizona; MA, Special 
Education, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff , 
Arizona; State of Arizona Teaching Certifi cate in 
Elementary and Special Education
The philosophy behind mainstreaming suggests that the interaction of students with 
and without mental retardation in regular classrooms will improve educational oppor-
tunities for those with retardation, increase their social acceptance, and facilitate their 
integration into society as a whole. Of course, special education classes still exist; some 
individuals with retardation function at too low of a level to benefi t from placement in 
regular classrooms. Moreover, children with mental retardation who are mainstreamed 
into regular classes typically attend special classes for at least part of the day (Hastings 
& Oakford, 2003; Williamson, McLeskey, & Hoppey, 2006; also see PsychWork ).
For Shannon Lynch, Director of Special Education at The Wil-
low Creek Charter School in Prescott, Arizona, being a special 
education teacher means providing ways for every student to 
achieve success. Each child presents different needs, and 
Lynch approaches her teaching accordingly. 
“For children with specifi c learning disabilities, I have 
found it is helpful to utilize repetition, hands-on activities, 
music, movements with information, and rhymes to get the 
information to stick,” she explained. 
“Children on the autism spectrum have challenges with 
social skills. Great programs exist that provide models and 
scripts of appropriate social interactions,” Lynch said. Emotional 
disabilities require a very different approach and involve provid-
ing counseling to cope with the diffi cult emotions students face. 
“The biggest factor for students with special needs is providing ways for them 
to achieve success. They have spent much of their academic career feeling incapable 
and inadequate, so just giving them small opportunities for success can make a huge 
difference in their confi dence,” Lynch noted.
Some educators argue that an alternative to mainstreaming, called full inclusion,
might be more effective. Full inclusion is the integration of all students, even those 
with the most severe educational disabilities, into regular classes and an avoidance 
of segregated special education classes. Teacher aides are assigned to help the 
children with special needs progress. Schools with full inclusion have no separate 
special education classes. However, full inclusion is a controversial practice, and it 
is not widely applied (Praisner, 2003; Spence-Cochran & Pearl, 2006; Begeny & 
Martens, 2007).
The Intellectually Gifted
Another group of people—the intellectually gifted—differ from those with average 
intelligence as much as individuals with mental retardation although in a different 
manner. Accounting for 2%–4% of the population, the  intellectually gifted  have IQ 
scores greater than 130. Sho Yano, the individual described in the chapter prologue 
who graduated from college at the age of 12, exemplifi es a case of someone who is