"To be" and its functions. "To have" and its functions

Example:
The results are known to be used…
Результати, як вiдомо, використовуються…


The results are known to have been used…
Результати, як вiдомо, були використанi…

1. 
   The rocket is found to develop speed…
   
2. 
   The rocket is found to have developed speed…
   
3. 
   The rocket was found to develop speed…
   
4. 
   The rocket has been found to develop speed…
   
5. 
   The properties of the elements are known to vary…
   
6. 
   The properties of the elements are known to have varied…
   
7. 
   This limitation appears to have been overcome…
   
8. 
   This limitation appeared to be overcome…
   

XIV. Translate the following sentences with the Complex Subject:

1. The Sun is known to have a 11-year cycle of activity.

2. 
   2. The proton is found to be 1840 times heavier than the electron.
   

3. The speed of light in vacuum is one of the fundamental physical constants and has been found to be very close to 3.00x10¹⁰ centimetres per second.

4. 
   Sputnik II is reported to have weighed about 1120 pounds.
   
5. 
   The Sun of a certain galaxy is said to have a diameter more than 16 times the distance from the Sun to the Earth.
   
6. 
   The first Earth’s satellites were expected to stay on their orbits for a month or two.
   
7. 
   Heat was thought to be a material substance.
   
8. 
   The atmosphere of Saturn is believed to be about 16.000 miles deep.
   
9. 
   Billions of stars are assumed to exist in the universe.
   
10. 
    Some of the meteors are supposed to have formed when comets that passed near the Earth broke up.
    
11. 
    The surface temperature of Mars seems to range from 30C down to – 60C.
    
12. 
    The circle where earth and the sky seem to meet is the horizon.
    
13. 
    Our galaxy proved to be a spiral system.
    
14. 
    When a planet has been proved to have an atmosphere, we naturally wish to find out as much as possible about the composition of the atmosphere.
    
15. 
    Stars appear to be made of the elements that have been found in our Sun.
    
16. 
    In contrast to the Moon and the Earth, Mars appears to have a relatively smooth surface.
    
17. 
    The neutron was shown to be a magnet by simple experiments.
    
18. 
    In physics the words nucleus and nuclei refer to the positively charged bodies which were shown by Rutherford to exist at the centre of the atoms of all substances.
    
19. 
    The ratio of charge to mass, e/m, for alpha particles was found by magnetic deflection measurements to be about half that for a proton.
    
20. 
    The electric rocket is likely to remain a low-thrust device.
    
21. 
    The rocket is unlikely to generate a velocity much greater than twice its exhaust velocity.
    
22. 
    This method does not appear to offer any advantages for it depends on the production of materials with higher strength to weight ratios.
    
23. 
    Although the neutron may seem to be a simple particle, having no electric charge but a small magnetic field, in modern theories the neutron is thought of as a complicated structure indeed.
    
24. 
    In the millimeter wave region, the maser may eventually prove to be the best coherent detector.
    
25. 
    Satellites in general move in elliptical orbits and they may be considered to have acceleration directed both towards the centre of the earth and in a perpendicular direction.
    
26. 
    The rocket may be said to work on the reaction principle.
    
27. 
    It does not seem to be possible at present to discuss a close correlation between the sunspot, number and magnetic activity.
    

XV. Translate the sentences. Pay attention to the use of the Complex Object.

1. 
   We consider the invention of the transistor to be of great importance for the development of semiconductor electronics.
   
2. 
   We know the second element of the simple two-element tube or diode to be called the anode.
   
3. 
   This can cause the useful output to be seriously reduced.
   
4. 
   This feature allows a large total amplification to be obtained with complete stability.
   
5. 
   The negative resistance of the diodes causes the power in a signal wave to increase as it travels along the wave-guide.
   
6. 
   The diode permits current to flow in one direction only.
   
7. 
   We believe new semiconductor devices to be developed in the nearest future.
   
8. 
   Everybody knows matter to consist of small particles called atoms.
   
9. 
   For some purposes we can consider electrons to be small, hard particles: for other purposes we consider them to be waves.
   
10. 
    This arrangement permits the amplification of several stages to be controlled simultaneously.
    
11. 
    We know the circuit to be a complete path which carries the current from the source of supply to the load and then from the load back to the source.
    
12. 
    We may expect a short circuit to result from wire fault.
    
13. 
    Ampere supposed the current to flow from the positive pole of the source round the circuit and back again to the negative pole.
    
14. 
    We consider Ampere to be right in the first statement and to be wrong in the second.
    
15. 
    They noticed the thermometer mercury fall to the fixed point.
    
16. 
    We know the electron to be a minute particle having an electric charge.
    

17. Suppose a large number of electrons to be concentrated on a very small area of a body.
XVI. Translate the sentences with the Complex Object paying attention to the meaning of the verbs “cause” and “make”.

1. 
   The ancients thought electricity to be invisible fluid.
   
2. 
   We consider nuclear energy to be the prime source of heat energy.
   
3. 
   The early discoveries in nuclear science showed the atomic nucleus to be a vast source of energy.
   
4. 
   Maxwell found the speed of propagation of electromagnetic waves to be equal to the ratio of electromagnetic to the electrostatic units of charge.
   
5. 
   At some distance above the Earth, ultra-violet radiation from the Sun causes some of the molecules to dissociate from the molecular state to the atomic state.
   
6. 
   What makes a satellite go around the Earth and stay in its orbit?
   
7. 
   The tendency of a body to continue to move in a straight line is very evident when for some reason it is necessary to make the body move in a circle.
   
8. 
   The air flowing over and under a wing causes the pressure to be less than atmospheric on the upper side of the wing.
   
9. 
   The more stages, the more difficult it is to make an amplifier run in a stable fashion.
   

XVII. Translate the groups of words and sentences paying attention to the structure “for+noun(pronoun)+infinitive”

A.

1. 
   For an aircraft to be built, it is necessary…
   
2. 
   For the fission process to be investigated, the scientists…
   
3. 
   For thermonuclear reaction to take place, the temperature…
   
4. 
   For the effect of cosmic rays to be studied in detail, satellites…
   

B.

1. 
   8 minutes are required for light to travel from the Sun to the Earth.
   
2. 
   Nearly a month is required for the Moon to circle the Earth.
   
3. 
   The satellite of Neptune is too far away for its size to be known with any accuracy.
   
4. 
   For combustion to be rapid, the fuel and oxidant must be quickly mixed.
   
5. 
   For ions to be formed, a considerable amount of energy must be given to the parent atoms.
   
6. 
   In order for the airplane to climb, thrust must exceed drag.
   
7. 
   In order for the radar system to operate properly, the radar receiver must be tuned to the magnetron frequency.
   
8. 
   To start a chain reaction it is necessary for at least one neutron to hit a Uranuium-235 nucleus.
   
9. 
   Certain conditions are necessary for the existence of life to be possible on planets.
   
10. 
    To observe the artificial satellite optically it is necessary for it to be illuminated by the Sun.
    
11. 
    In order for a proton or neutron to leave the nucleus much energy is required.
    
12. 
    Four years are required for light to travel from the nearest star to the Earth.
    

XVIII. Translate the following sentences. Pay attention to the use of infinitive clauses

1. 
   We assume the program to have been carefully developed.
   
2. 
   For correct conclusions to be drawn all the conditions must be observed.
   
3. 
   These particles have recently been discovered to be of complex structure.
   
4. 
   We saw the particles behave in an unusual way under given conditions.
   
5. 
   Roentgen is known to have discovered a means for photographing the inside of things.
   
6. 
   It is possible for atoms to have the same chemical properties, and different numbers of neutrons in their nuclei.
   
7. 
   Mistakes are likely to occur if this calculation is made mentally.
   
8. 
   This test appears not to be obligatory, but it is advisable.
   
9. 
   This e.m.f. is said to be one of polarization.
   
10. 
    The alternations of the current are too rapid for it to be affected by polarization.
    
11. 
    It was necessary for the device to be tested.
    
12. 
    Automation has been found to be particularly effective in continuous cycle production and operation of thermal and hydropower plants.
    
13. 
    There is said to be a 120-degree phase difference between any two line voltages or any two star voltages.
    
14. 
    These fault tests cannot be expected to give absolutely accurate results.
    
15. 
    From an elementary point of view, a semiconductor may be considered to be an electronic conductor which has a negative temperature coefficient of resistance over some temperature range.
    
16. 
    One may expect a knowledge of the dynamics of electronic processes to lead to the gradual creation of electronic power engineering.
    
17. 
    Both processes provide a means for the electrons to return to their normal ground states.
    

XIX. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the functions of the Infinitive:

1. 
   We shall consider a very simple example in order to explain this phenomenon.
   
2. 
   Computer science is to be regarded as a new discipline.
   
3. 
   It is quite necessary for him to make a great number of calculations to solve the problem.
   
4. 
   We know silver to be the best of conducting materials.
   
5. 
   Michael Faraday had little chance to get an education.
   
6. 
   An attempt to form a theory of such systems was made by Professor W.
   
7. 
   We expect the article to be published next year.
   
8. 
   I believe him to have changed his plans.
   
9. 
   Radio and television continue to develop and to find wider application in science and industry.
   
10. 
    I saw the workers repair the machine.
    
11. 
    The fastest way to detect an artificial satellite is by radio.
    
12. 
    We watched the robot perform many operations.
    
13. 
    We are to study the main laws of physics.
    
14. 
    An electronic machine has to be used to make these calculations.
    

XX. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the infinitive clauses:

1. 
   The professor made the students repeat the experiment.
   
2. 
   We want them to receive this information as soon as possible.
   
3. 
   The only thing for you to do is to use a microscope.
   
4. 
   A material which allows electricity to flow through it is called a conductor.
   
5. 
   We did not see them make this experiment.
   
6. 
   For him to take this decision was not easy.
   
7. 
   We think this work to be completed in a month.
   
8. 
   Our professor wants us to use these data.
   
9. 
   It was easy for our mechanic to repair this device.
   
10. 
    Electronics enabled scientists to take pictures of the moon.
    
11. 
    For the decision to be correct all facts must be considered.
    

XXI. Translate the sentences paying attention to the infinitives and infinitive clauses.

1. 
   Advancement in electronic technique appears to be endless.
   
2. 
   All forms of radiant energy have been found to travel through space with the same speed.
   
3. 
   Temperatures on the surface of Mars, which seems to be the most comfortable place for life to exist beyond our Earth within the solar system, are also of some interest.
   
4. 
   Most physicists believed in the latter half of the nineteenth century cathode rays to be charged particles.
   
5. 
   Satellites in Earth orbits of about 600 miles or greater can normally be expected to remain in orbit for thousands of years.
   
6. 
   The first satellite to be designed and developed in England was Ariel 3 which was successfully put into orbit on May 5, 1967.
   
7. 
   To say that an object is travelling at a speed of 20 ft/sec (feet per second) does not describe the motion completely.
   
8. 
   A day on Jupiter has been observed to be 9 Earth hours and 55 minutes long, the shortest of any of the planets.
   
9. 
   When sound waves are directed on the diaphragm they cause it to move backwards and forwards.
   
10. 
    The choice of radioisotope to be used as the source is determined by the thickness of the product to be measured.
    
11. 
    The penetrating power of this new radiation was an obvious point to investigate.
    
12. 
    A current which always flows in one direction along a wire is said to be a direct current.
    
13. 
    Fourier’s theory states that any waveform that repeats at regular time intervals can be shown mathematically to be equivalent to the sum of a series of sine waves of different amplitudes and frequencies.
    
14. 
    The first attempt to measure the speed of propagation of light was undertaken by Galileo in a very primitive way.
    
15. 
    As we have seen earlier in this chapter, to cause thermonuclear reactions extremely high temperatures are required.
    
16. 
    From classical electrodynamics we know that when a charge is accelerated it radiates. (This is the process that causes radio and television antennae to radiate).
    
17. 
    In the so-called “gas counters” the radiation to be detected causes ionization in the gas, and the free charge is then collected and measured.
    
18. 
    A satellite launched into an orbit which approaches the Earth’s surface closer than 200 km will not circulate for long. The air drag is sufficient to cause the orbit to spiral in quite quickly to the dense lower atmosphere.
    
19. 
    These rays were shown by J.J. Thomson and others to consist of a mixture of molecules and atoms of the residual gas.
    
20. 
    For a sound to be heard by the human ear it should be between the frequencies of approximately 20 cycles and 15,000 cycles.
    
21. 
    Newton stated that the force which makes objects fall towards the Earth is only a special case of a general attraction between any two masses.
    
22. 
    The birthplace of man is believed to be somewhere in the eastern hemisphere, but in just what region or even on what continent it is still impossible to say.
    
23. 
    Interference by cosmic ray particles makes it necessary for neutrino detection to be carried out deep underground where other particles cannot penetrate.
    
24. 
    In the course of his theoretical investigations Maxwell discovered the pressure of light. He derived this effect from the electromagnetic theory, but as a matter of fact it can be shown to follow from any wave theory.
    
25. 
    Even though the demand for coal and lignite continues to rise there does not appear to be any danger of running out of these fuels for several hundred years at least.
    
26. 
    The first rocket to be used as a vehicle for scientific research was the rocket-powered gyro-controlled missile.
    
27. 
    This property of matter to resist any change in its motion is called inertia.
    
28. 
    Calculations concerning the interior properties of the Sun show it to contain mostly hydrogen and helium.
    
29. 
    The unstable isotopes that are almost stable have been found to occur naturally and these were known as early as the turn of the century.
    
30. 
    For the purpose of this book we shall assume nuclei to be made up of two types of constituents, neutrons and protons.
    
31. 
    There are certain principles to be followed in the design of propellers.
    
32. 
    The important thing to notice is that the resolving power depends on the diameter of the object glass.
    
33. 
    In the electromagnetic theory of radiation the atom is supposed to be similar to the antenna of a radio transmitter, although much smaller and radiating a much higher frequency.
    
34. 
    To determine the magnitude of anything, it is necessary to make a measurement.
    
35. 
    For the sound to arise it is necessary to have a sound source and a medium to travel through.
    
36. 
    If plane waves fall perpendicularly on a surface they may be shown to exert a pressure on it of a magnitude equal to the density of energy in the waves. This result is exceedingly difficult to observe, as the pressure is very small in practical cases.
    
37. 
    In 1850 the French physicist Jean Foucault measured the speed of light in water. He found it to be substantially less than the velocity in air.
    
38. 
    The basic requirements for any orbital research laboratory are heavily dependent upon the experiments to be performed.
    
39. 
    There appear to be small but real fluctuations of a few per cent in the solar constant.
    
40. 
    The penetrating power of this new radiation was an obvious point to investigate.
    
41. 
    At first, man believed the Earth to be flat.
    
42. 
    Considerable progress has been made with the difficult task of processing the information quickly enough for it to be of use for weather forecasting.
    
43. 
    On the basis of new theoretical investigations it was demonstrated that it is hardly possible for the primary cosmic radiation to be of “near-solar” or metagalactic origin.
    
44. 
    The hydrogen atom was the object of the first theoretical attack, because as the lightest of all atoms it was assumed to have the simplest structure.
    
45. 
    In order for life to arise on a planet, the mass of the planet must lie between certain limits.
    
46. 
    There does not appear to be a promising approach to the solution of the problem.
    
47. 
    As mentioned earlier, there seems to be no doubt that the X-ray emission changes very much over the solar cycle.
    
48. 
    Using data of this kind it was found that the theory does not seem to give results which are in good agreement with the observation.
    
49. 
    The discovery of radium was the first to start the new era of radioactive elements.
    
50. 
    Both instruments and human explorers are sure to find many surprises in the solar system.
    

12. Participle. Nominative Absolute Participle Clause.