Theory and practice of translation

II. Lexical substitution.
1. In substitutions of lexical units words and stable word combinations are replaced by others, which are not their equivalents. More often 3 cases are met with:

1. 
   Concretization. Some groups of lexical units require concretization in translation. This is due to the difference in the proportion between abstract and desemantized words on the one hand and concrete words on the other in the S and T languages.
   

Concretization (concrete definition) – replacing a word with a broad sense by one of a narrower meaning:
E.g.: He is at school – У мактабда уқийди. Он учится в школе;
How are things – Ишлар қалай? Как успехи?;
Milk goes up – Молоко убежало.
He is in the army – У армияда хизмат қилади. Он служит в армии;

2. 
   Generalization is the opposite of concretization. In this case a SL word of concrete meaning is rendered by a TL word of general meaning. This type is not so wide-spread and occurs less frequently than concretization. May be this is due to the fact that abstract and desemanticized words in English form, a numerous and diversified group, thus supplying a linguistic base to this type of transformation, whereas generalization appears to be lacking a similar linguistic foundation.
   

Sometimes generalization is resorted to for pragmatic reasons in order to avoid expanded explanations or footnotes.
Generalization – replacing a word’s narrow meaning by one with a broad sense.
E.g.: A Navajo blanket – жун адиёл; индийское одеяло (шерстяное одеяло);
Shot down – убитый.
Here are some more examples of this type of lexical transformation.
E.g.: In the Arctic of today the frozen face of the deep is changing and man seeks a scientific explanation for its growth and shrinkage.
Ледяной покров Ледовитого океана сейчас меняется, и люди ищут научное объяснение этому явлению.
E.g.: Much more than an effective gun control is going to be needed to cure America of the plague of violence that afflicts it.
Для того, чтобы избавить Америку от эпидемии насилия, недостаточно одного только строгого контроля над продажей оружия.

3.