The Interplay of Synonymy and Polysemy



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Figure 6
. Schema representing the syntactic structure of the phrase 
echar de menos
From a syntactic or phonological perspective there are three words: 
echar, de 
and 
menos.
But semantically there is little connection between these components and the 
composite structure (i.e. the phrase 
echar de menos
). This is shown in figure 7. The 
composite structure is the topmost structure. The top half shows the elements of the phrase 
and the bottom half shows the semantics associated with the phrase. The components are 
shown as separate schemas at the bottom of the figure. Semantically there is no relation 
between the components 
echar
and 
de
and the composite phrase. That is, there seems to be no 
aspect of meaning that the individual verb 
echar
contributes to the final phrase. This is shown 
by a lack of links connecting the component to the composite structure.
Figure 7
. Semantic relation between the component parts and the composite phrase for 
echar de menos
One could argue that 
menos
‘less’ can be associated with some meaning in the 
composite structure. In this case, 
menos
‘less’ can be seen as related to the notion of absence. 
Then we see a partial semantic contribution (dashed line) made by 
menos
‘less’ to the entire 
phrase. 
Menos
‘less’ does not keep its full meaning in the final phrase, and there is nothing 
really resembling compositionality as it is usually conceived, but there is some relation 
between the concept of ‘less’ and the concept of ‘absence’.
Other theories would just list the phrase 
echar de menos 
as is and associate it with 
specific semantics. In contrast, our analysis has a lot to say about the structure (semantically 
and syntactically) of the idiomatic phrase. A speaker could have a schematic analysis of the 
phrase and the semantic relation between the parts. A speaker will at least know that the verb 
echar
appears as part of the phrase 
echar de menos
and that there seems to be no semantic 
connection between the single verb and the phrase. Trivially, a speaker should at least know 
that in a specific phrase 
echar
(along with other elements) has the meaning of ‘to miss’.
VERB 
PREP 
WORD 
echar 
menos 
de 
echar 
de 
menos 
NOTICE AN ABSENCE AND FEEL SAD 


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The question here may be: why is it necessary for a speaker to analyze a fixed phrase? 
There happens to be a second phrase with 
echar
that also means ‘to miss someone/thing’: the 
phrase 
echar en falta 
(literally ‘throw in lack’)

Here it is important to note the similarity 
between both fixed phrases. Both use the verb 
echar
as the first element and a preposition as 
the second element. The final elements, in both cases, have somewhat similar semantics: 
menos 
‘less’ and 
falta
‘lack/missing’ both evoke a notion of absence. Both phrases mean ‘to 
miss’ and both show a similar level of (non-)compositionality: the verb and preposition seem 
to add nothing to the composite semantics, but the final element does seem to line up to the 
notion of absence.
The sources show no etymological information for the phrase 
echar en falta
. It is not 
clear whether it was born on analogy to 
echar de menos
. Still, from a synchronic perspective 
it is entirely possible for a speaker to notice the striking similarities between the two phrases. 
Even though this schema (
echar 
+ preposition + word that relates to absence) is not a 
common or productive pattern, it is a pattern nonetheless since it is repeated in the language. 
The CG perspective gives us the tools for capturing these patterns. 
This example is in fact an extreme case of limited semantic relation between two 
meanings or uses of a verb. Several cognitive linguists hold that if the theoretical tools 
proposed can account for the syntactically irregular and semantically idiosyncratic parts of 
language (such as idioms) then we can easily transfer those tools to account for the more 
regular phenomena (Gibbs 2007:721, Goldberg 2003:222). We will see throughout this study 
that there are usually more semantic connections between each verb and its various uses. All 
those semantic connections can be captured with the tools provided by schemas and links. 


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Chapter 3. Methodology 
This project is primarily a corpus study. The main source of data is a 400-sentence 
corpus which is explored using statistical tools. The results of this first study are 
complemented by a second corpus study (collostructional analysis) and by an experimental 
test performed in Juticalpa, Honduras. This section describes how the data was collected in 
all three cases and the statistical measures that are used in each. There is no discussion of the 
results of each test. The results are discussed in depth throughout chapter 4.
Before beginning a description of the three studies, I must begin by defining the focus 
of the study and the elements that are explored throughout this project. A stereotypical 
throwing event involves at least three arguments: a thrower, an object that is thrown and a 
trajectory of motion. The first participant, which will be labeled the 
INITIATOR
,
includes 
humans, animals, natural forces, objects and events that are conceptualized as the causers of 
motion. The term is borrowed from Morante et al. (1998) and ADESSE. This participant has 
also been termed an agent in Spanish FrameNet and Levin (1993). The 
INITIATOR
is usually 
expressed as the grammatical subject. 
The second participant is the element that is conceived of as undergoing motion. I will 
use the term 
MOVANT
, defined as ‘one that is moving’ (WEBSTER). The term is inspired by 
the Spanish term 
móvil
used in ADESSE, and is likely the closest translation. This participant 
has also been called theme (Spanish FrameNet, Levin 2008) and 
entidad
‘entity’ (Morante et 
al. 1998, Levin 1993). The 
MOVANT 
includes not only physical elements that can participate 
in a prototypical throwing event, but abstract ones such as light, smell, a smile, sound, etc., 
which can be conceptualized as moving. See §4.2.1 for a further discussion of what I 
classified as a 
MOVANT

The final argument is the 
DIRECTIONAL 
(Cf.
Fábregras 2007, Levin & Rappaport 
Hovav 1994). This expresses any portion of the trajectory of motion of the 
MOVANT

including origin of motion (

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