The Interplay of Synonymy and Polysemy



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2.4.3 Polysemy as Schemas 
The 
throw-
verbs show a large amount of variation in the meanings that can be 
expressed with each verb. Adopting schemas and links allows us to show connections 
between a verb and its various uses. In fact, links can be posited for a verb and the different 
idioms it can appear with, no matter how semantically opaque the idiom may be.


29 | 
The verb 
echar
appears in the phrase 
echar de menos. 
The phrase means ‘to notice the 
absence of someone/thing and to feel sad about it’ (DELE, VOX)
4
. The phrase first appeared 
in the language in the 16
th
century. It is an adaptation of a Portuguese phrase 
achar menos
which literally meant ‘to find not’ (Corominas & Pascual 1991). Even though historically 
there may be a semantic motivation for the phrase, synchronically this phrase is mostly non-
compositional for most speakers; they treat 
echar de menos 
closer to a single chunk 
semantically.
A traditional solution is to treat this phrase as a separate entry. There is a lexical entry 
for the verb 
echar
and a separate one for the phrase 
echar de menos
, and there would be no 
connection between them. This would likely be the solution proposed by Jackendoff (1990) 
and Pustejovsky (1995). Since it seems that the meaning of the individual elements in the 
phrase do not contribute to the final meaning (i.e. it is not compositional) it is unclear how 
Pustejovsky’s (1995) system would handle such a phrase. The meaning extension (if it can be 
called that) from throwing to missing is not common or regular enough to be captured by a 
principle. Therefore, Jackendoff (1990) would not have much to say about this phrase either.
From a construction perspective there is more to say about this idiomatic phrase. 
Idioms exhibit mixed characteristics: they are semantically idiosyncratic, a characteristic of 
individual lexical items, yet they are syntactically complex, a characteristic of phrases and 
sentences (Croft 2007, Cruse 1986). Often idioms follow regular syntactic patterns and can 
even be semantically compositional in some cases (Fillmore et al. 1988, Nunberg et al. 1994, 
O’Grady 1998, Mateu & Espinal 2007). Using schemas and links we can show these patterns 
of semantic and syntactic compositionality.
The syntactic make-up of the phrase 
echar de menos
can be captured using schemas. 
First of all, the phrase is made up of three words. Simplifying a bit, there would be a schema 
that captures the fact that the first element is a verb. A schema can capture information at 
differing levels of abstraction: it is the verb 
echar
, which is a caused-motion verb, which is a 
motion verb, which is a verb. The second element is the preposition 
de
‘from/of’. The final 
element is 
menos
‘less’. Though this last word is usually used as an adverb, in this case it is 
not behaving as an adverb. A speaker could reason that it seems to be behaving as a 
complement of the verb, so it might be a noun. Or a speaker could conceive of it simply as a 
word, not caring what type of word it is. This analysis of the structure is shown in figure 6.
4
Throughout this paper I use various dictionaries, grammars and online resources to define the different 
meanings of the 
throw
-verbs. The sources are in Spanish. All translations in the text are my own. I have 
attempted in each case to be as faithful to the original text as possible, though sometimes I merge definitions 
from two dictionaries, or shorten a definition. The original Spanish definitions are included in appendix C. 



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