parties will converge during the negotiation. As we may not be completely
informed of the counterparty’s interests and priorities before a negotiation, it is
advisable to prepare different offers, each with the same value for us, in order to
exploit the integrative scope of the negotiation without adding any value to the
negotiation ourselves. This may occur by submitting our roughly equivalent
offers either jointly or soon after one another and assessing the counterparty’s
reactions. The offer that is most attractive to the counterparty is then the most
efficient and can be used as an additional starting point.
•
What arguments help our interests and positions?
Negotiations over a major
order are generally conducted in a relatively rational manner. As a result, to a
certain extent, we can assume that our own arguments will be believed and
respected by the counterparty. In mutual encounters, well-prepared lines of
argument may ensure that the counterparty makes concessions more quickly,
or that we can insist on a currently negotiated offer for longer, without the
negotiation drifting into a spiral of competitive behavior. As every negotiation
represents a competition for distribution of the bargaining pie, well-prepared and
executed arguments are more helpful than threats or rejections due to a lack of
preparation.
•
What parameters in the negotiation situation will help us? Who should be at the
table on our side? What other precautions are necessary?
In addition to the
above considerations that relate to the content of a negotiation, it is also useful to
influence the framework parameters in our favor to the extent that this is
possible. An important issue in this regard is the composition of the negotiation
team. For example, which experts are required and to what extent are language,
intercultural,
or
specific
interpersonal
competencies
required?
Other
considerations include whether the composition and size of our negotiation
team can be matched to the counterparty’s delegation. A clear distribution of
roles and tasks is also helpful.
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259
4.2
The Opposing Party
If you know the enemy and know yourself, you need not fear the result of a hundred battles.
Sun Tzu.
This quote by the ancient Chinese war strategist shows that preparing for a negoti-
ation without acquiring and evaluating information about the counterparty and
anticipating their interests, positions and the individuals involved means that the
preparation is incomplete. Before assessing the counterparty’s interest and prefer-
ence structure and their alternatives, we first need to clarify who the counterparty
actually is.
The Identity of the Counterparty
A negotiation in the industrial plant and project business does not take place in a
vacuum. Various interested parties come to the negotiating table, potentially even a
public interest. A common illustration compares this kind of negotiation situation to
a football game. Certain parameters are set: the quality of the pitch, the spectators,
the lineups, the kick-off time, etc. But, the result of the negotiation primarily
depends on how the teams, i.e. the negotiating delegations, perform in 90 min
and how the game develops.
This illustration leads to a series of questions that are covered below.
•
Who is the other party?
This question relates to the counterparty’s line-up,
represented by the letter B in Fig.
13
. Ideally, we should know who will be
negotiating for the counterparty, as only this knowledge will allow us to ensure
that we have an optimal line-up. Important information about the counterparty’s
line-up also includes the number of team members, their hierarchical position,
their technical and cultural background, their expertise, their gender, their age
and experience, their reputation and their role in the team. As we saw when
discussing personality traits, it can be very useful to match the counterparty’s
team in our own line-up, i.e. consciously establish similarities, such as with
respect to technical and cultural background, age, hierarchical position between
team members of both teams, in order to increase mutual understanding.
•
Are there any influencers who are not present at the negotiating table?
Although
a football game is basically a game between the two parties on the pitch, there
are also parties who attempt to have a specific external influence (C), primarily
the coaching staff, who provides tactical and strategic instructions and also has
substitutes available. As a result, it is important to anticipate who might not be at
the table for the counterparty, but will still attempt to exert influence during and
between the rounds of negotiation. This may include indirectly involved execu-
tive or supervisory boards or, in the case of contracting authorities, parties that
are indirectly affected, such as higher authorities or government politicians. How
far the decision-making powers of the opposing negotiating delegation extend
also needs to be clarified, i.e. whether a contract needs to be ratified by other
committees. In this case, it may be advisable to hold background discussions
260
I. Geiger
with these indirect influencers in addition to the direct negotiations. In addition,
indirect influencers may also be much further removed, such as the public at a
football game (D). This may include participants in an even broader sphere, who
hold an interest in the outcome of the negotiation and may attempt to exert their
influence indirectly: residents and citizens, unions, political parties, shareholder
associations, etc. As is the case in a football match, their influence is not direct,
but it may have a specific, indirect impact.
•
Is the other party monolithic? What diverging interests does the counterparty
have and how can these be exploited?
These questions aim to identify the extent
to which the interests of the counterparty’s individual team members diverge and
how this circumstance can be used for our benefit. For example, in football, the
central defender, who received a yellow card in the tournament’s semi-final and
A
B
C
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
E
E
E
E
E
E
A: Own team: Participants on own side directly involved in the negotiation
B: Opposition: Participants on the opposition side directly involved in the negotiation
C: Trainers and dugout: Indirect involvement in the negotiation
D: Public and fans: Interested observers
E: Environment outside the stadium (weather, other games): Relevant negotiating environment
Fig. 13
The negotiation as a football game: negotiation participants (based on Lewicki
et al.
2010
, p. 128)
Negotiation Management
261
would miss the final if he received a second yellow, has a slightly different
starting position than his colleagues without any cards, which the opposing
coach can identify and potentially exploit. In negotiations it may also be the
case that some of the counterparty’s team members would associate more
without one of our proposals in certain points, such as with regard to certain
technical solutions. Potential allies in the opposing camp on certain issues must
be identified so that diverging interests in the counterparty can be exploited for
our benefit.
The Counterparty’s Perspective of the Substantial Issues in a Negotiation
However, being aware of the counterparty’s various participants is only helpful to
the extent to which we have also mentally slipped into the role of the opposition
with regard to the substantial issues of the negotiation. A distinction must therefore
be made between three sets of questions:
•
What fundamental interests is the counterparty pursuing? What issues are
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