The aim of the present paper is to determine the major translation strategies used for rendering lexical repetition in contemporary novels. In order to achieve the aim, the following tasks

4. Structural point of view: it is presupposed that morphemes fall into three types: free morphemes which can stand alone as words in isolation (e.g. friendly, friendship); bound morphemes that occur only as word constituents (e.g. resist, deceive, mis interpret, etc.); semi-bound morphemes which can function both as affixes and as free morphemes (compare, e.g. well -known, her self, after -thought and well, self, after). In modern English there are many morphemes of Greek and Latin origin possessing a definite lexical meaning though not used autonomously, e.g. tele- “far”(television), -scope “seeing”(microscope), -graph ‘writing”(typography). Such morphemes are called combining forms – bound linguistic forms though in Greek and Latin they functioned as independent words. They are particularly frequent in the specialized vocabularies of arts and sciences.
5. Affixes are also classified from the etymological POV into two large groups: native and borrowed.



2.2 The morpheme and its types
Thus, there must be some formal criteria for wordhood which all speakers use. These might be of various kinds: 1. Orthographic: a word is what occurs between spaces in writing. 2. Semantic: a word has semantic coherence; it expresses a unified semantic concept. 3. Phonological: a. potential pause: a word occurs between potential pauses in speaking. Though in normal speech, we generally do not pause, we may potentially pause between words, but not in the middle of words. b. stress: a word spoken in isolation has one and only one primary stress. 4. Morphological: a word has an internal cohesion and is indivisible by other units; a word may be modified only externally by the addition of suYxes and prefixes. 5. Grammatical: words fall into particular classes. 6. Syntactic: a word has external distribution or mobility; it is moved as a unit, not in parts. We can see the usefulness of these criteria if we look at some problematical examples of word delimitation: grapefruit son-in-law travel agency money-hungry good-for-nothing look over Another diYculty when treating words is the term word itself, which may be used in a number of diVerent ways:

1. 
   It may refer to the word form, the physical unit or concrete realization, either the orthographical word (which is underlined or italicized in writing when it is mentioned rather than used) and the phonological word (which may be uttered or transcribed).
   

2. It may refer to the lexeme, which is rather like a dictionary entry. A lexeme includes all inflected forms of a word. It is thus a kind of abstraction or class of forms and is indicated by small capitals, as in the following examples: walk — walk, walks, walked, walking

3. Finally, word may also refer to a morphosyntactic word (or grammatical word). A morphosyntactic word consists of a lexeme and associated grammatical meaning. For example, put is three morphosyntactic words: I put the garbage out every week. (put + present) I put the garbage out yesterday. (put + past) I have put the garbage out already. (put + past participle) Morphemes We must start by identifying the morpheme, the smallest meaningful unit in a language; the morpheme is not necessarily equivalent to a word, but may be a smaller unit. Like the phoneme, the ⁶morpheme refers to either a class of forms or an abstraction from the concrete forms of language. A morpheme is internally indivisible; it cannot be further subdivided or analyzed into smaller meaningful units. It has internal stability since nothing can be interposed in a morpheme. It is also externally transportable; it has positional mobility or free distribution, occurring in various contexts. Morphemes are represented within curly braces { } using capital letters for lexemes or descriptive designations for other types of morphemes. There are a number of types morpheme. This classification is based primarily on meaning. Lexical morphemes express lexical, or dictionary, meaning. They can be categorized into the major lexical categories, or word classes: noun, verb, adjective, or adverb. They constitute open categories, to which new members can be added. Lexical morphemes are generally independent words (free roots) or parts of words (derivational aYxes and bound roots). Grammatical morphemes express a limited number of very common meanings or express relations within the sentence. They do not constitute open categories; they can be exhaustively listed. Their occurrence is (entirely) predictable by the grammar of the sentence because certain grammatical meanings are associated with certain lexical categories, for example, tense and voice with the verb, and number and gender with the noun. Grammatical morphemes may be parts of words (inflectional aYxes) or small but independent “function words” belonging to the minor word classes: preposition, article, demonstrative, conjunction, auxiliary, and so on, e.g., of, the, that, and, may. In the case of the morpheme — which is an abstraction — we must also recognize the level of the morph, the concrete realization of a morpheme, or the actual segment of a word. Wemust do so because sometimes amorpheme has no concrete realization, although we know that it exists. In such cases, we speak of a zero morph, one which has no phonetic or overt realization. There is no equivalent on the level of the phoneme. For example, the past tense let consists of themorpheme {let} plus themorpheme {past}, although the past tensemorpheme has no concrete expression in this case. Or plural fish consists of the morphemes {fish} + {pl}, although the plural morpheme has no concrete realization. Note that morphs are represented by word forms or phonetic forms. We say that a morpheme is “realized” as a morph. Just as there are diVerent types of morphemes, there are diVerent types of morphs. This classification is based primarily on form. A free morph may stand alone as a word, while a bound morph may not; it must always be attached to another morph. A free morph is always a root. That is, it carries the principal lexical or grammatical meaning. It occupies the position where there is greatest potential for substitution; it may attach to other free or bound morphemes.Roots are also occasionally bound morphs. These are called bound roots. Bound roots are often foreign borrowings that were free in the source language, but not free in English. For example, in the following sets of words, we would all intuitively identify the root -vert, -mit, or -ceive (in part because it occurs in a number of words, as do the prefixes): -vert: convert, revert, subvert, intravert, pervert -mit: transmit, commit, remit, admit, omit, submit -ceive: conceive, perceive, receive, deceive. Unlike a root, does not carry the core meaning. It is always bound to a root. It occupies a position where there is limited potential for substitution; that is, a particular will attach to only certain roots. English has two kinds of aYxes, prefixes, which attach to the beginnings of roots, and suyxes, which attach to the end of roots. Some languages regularly use “infixes”, which are inserted in the middle of words. In Modern English, infixes are used onlyfor humorous purposes, asinim-bloody-possibleor abso-blooming-lutely. Afxes may be of two types, derivational or inflectional, which have very diverent characteristics. A derivational ayx in English is either a prefix or a suyx. There may be more than one derivational ayx per word. A particular derivational ayx may attach to only a limited number of roots; which roots it attaches to is not predictable by rule, but highly idiosyncratic and must be learned. A derivational ayx has one of two functions: to convert one part of speech to another (in which case, it is called class changing) or to change the meaning of the root (in which case, it is called class maintaining). Such ayxes function, then, in word formation and are important in the creation of new lexemes in the language.