Technology and Education: Computers, Software, and the Internet



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∂A/∂C  +  ∂A/∂T

C

*∂T

C

/∂C]  –  [∂A/∂S  + 

∂A/∂T

S

*∂T

S

/∂S]. 

This model can be extended to account for different assumptions about the allocation of 

classroom time. First, computers may increase the total amount of instruction a student receives 

if  teachers  must  divide  their time between group and individual instruction. In this scenario, 

some traditional class time, 

T

S

, is wasted  for students  and CAI can fill in these down periods. 

This should cause increased investment in ICT, and CAI in particular, to be more likely to have a 

positive effect on educational outcomes. Alternatively, students may use computers for non-

instructional activities that offset instructional time.  Furthermore, mechanical problems with 

technology could create instructional downtime. That is, some computer-based instructional 

time, 

T

C

, may be wasted and thus crowd out more productive instruction. This should cause ICT 

investment to be more likely to have a negative effect. We discuss each of these adjustments to 

the model and the implications for interpreting estimates in the literature. 

Barrow, Markman, and Rouse (2009) propose a model to argue that CAI may increase 

total instructional time during a class period or school day. They assume that a teacher 



j divides 

class time between providing group instruction



T

j

G

, and individualized instruction for each 

student 

i,  T

ij

. Each student receives group instruction and his or her share of individual 




11

 

 



instruction. Computer instruction

T

i

C

, provides supplemental instruction during periods when the 

teacher is giving individual instruction to other students. This model differs from the baseline 

model presented above in that  CAI replaces down time rather than traditional instruction.  The 

revised constraints make these trade-offs clear. 

 

(2.2)  



T

jt

G

 + T

ijt 

+ T

it

C

 ≤ T   and  T

jt

G

 + ∑T

ijt

 

≤ T

j

 

 



The return to computer-based instruction

∂A/∂T

C

, is not offset by a reduction in traditional 

instruction,

 ∂A/∂T

S

. Modeled  in this way, CAI  will improve academic outcomes if it provides 

any academic benefit: 

f(X

it

,A

it-1

,T

it

,T

t

G

,T

it

C

) ≥ f(X

it

,A

it-1

,T

it

,T

t

G

, 0).

10

 



Belo, Ferreira, and Telang (2014) model a case in which time spent using computers is 

not necessarily productive. For example, students may use computers to watch videos or engage 

in social networking  activities that do not improve traditional academic outcomes.  In this case, 

computer time 




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