approaches, includes RF magnetron sputtering, hybrid sputtering,
thermal evaporation, pulsar laser deposition, spray pyrolysis approach,
sol-gel spin coating approach. The concern of these approaches is to
reduce the cost of the photovoltaic and to enhance the e
fficiency of the
solar cell
[18,19]
.
3. Literature review
CZTS has been the choice of material in fabrication of photovoltaic
devices due to its very good electronic and optoelectronic properties.
CZTS devices had been synthesized and fabricated using di
fferent
methods. In order to understand the materials property and the device
physics, theoretical investigations have been performed using
first
principle calculations.
3.1. First principle calculation for CZTS
Many works have been reported on CIGS based thin
film solar cell.
Since the e
fficiency of the kesterite based devices turned into very low,
di
fferent approaches have been adopted to enhance the overall per-
formance of the kesterite based photovoltaic by di
fferent compositions
of the crystal lattice to be used as a absorber layer. Hence CZTS based
kesterite structure were looked into an alternative for CIGS devices
[20]
. CZTS compound is typically a p-type semiconductor with a band
gap of 1.4
–1.5 eV, which is nearer to be optimum band gap of a pho-
tovoltaic device. It additionally has very high absorption coe
fficient
( > 10
4
cm
−1
) in the visible region. Hence CZTS based semiconducting
compound were used as an absorber layer in heterojunction based
photovoltaic
[21]
. Cd doping were carried out into CZTS to improve the
e
fficiency of the device. To make the investigation even before the
synthesis,
first principle calculations were performed with the Cd
doping into Cu
2
ZnSnS
4
and Cu
2
ZnSnSe
4
. Doping of the Cd into CZTS
exhibits a n type conduction with the electronic charge structure
showing a neutral charge behavior
[22]
. CdS is a n-type semiconductor
compound with a band gap of 2.4 eV. CdS is used as a window layer in a
solar cell with CZTS layer as an absorber layer
[23]
. Working on the
energy band di
fference between the bands makes a significant progress
in the device applications. Similar work is carried out with the
Cu
2
CdxZn
1
_xSnS
4
alloy with varying doping concentration of Cd. The
films were studied on various properties such as band gap and hall
e
ffect. Band gap of the films varied from 1.55 to 1.09 eV as the doping
concentration of the Cd is varied with 0
–1%. Hall effect results suggests
the decrease in the hole mobility with the increasing Cd concentrations.
Band alignment of the Cu2ZnSnS4/Cu2CdSnS4 interface has type I
alignment with decreasing band gap over increased Cd doping. Hence
the structure can be used for multijunction tandem solar cell with im-
proved e
fficiency
[24]
.
Band gap engineering is the most signi
ficant area of research on the
nanostructures and nanodevices, enabling the proper operation of the
device. Many works have been reported in the analysis of the band
structure of solar cells to identify the alignment and defects. Crystalline
defects in Cu on the interfaces of bu
ffer and absorber layers plays a
critical role in the performance of the kesterite solar cells. Cu defects in
the CZTS solar cells is analyzed to for the p type conductivity and Ag
doping and its defects shows the n type weak conductivity. From the
theoretical investigation, it is understood that the Cu and Ag alloying
into CZTS will have a better light absorbance resulting in better e
ffi-
ciency with kesterite solar cells. The band alignment of the device is
grouped into two types such type I band alignment and type II band
alignment. Type I band alignment could be set when the conduction
band minimum of absorber layer is less than the window layer.
Similarly, it is going be a type II alignment when the conduction band
minimum of the absorber layer more than the window layer
[25]
.
Electrical transport properties of hetero junction based photovoltaic
highly depends upon the band o
ffsets of the hetero interface. Charge
trapping in between the bands and interstatial sites of the device is a
major concern in device fabrication. Similarly, the sub band photons
can also be utilized e
ffectively with the absorption of the particular
wavelength photons. Study on the escape of carriers in InAs/GaAs
quantum dot is carried out in order to analyze the e
ffective use the
photon energies. Photocurrent measurements under sub bandgap illu-
mination were carried out in the study. The study was carried out to
identify the trapping mechanisms in the intermediate bands and to
improve the device performance
[26]
.
The haight et al.
[27]
has measured the valence band o
ffset for Δ Ev
of 0.54 eV on the premise of the usage of ultraviolet photoelectron
spectroscopy (UPS). The band o
ffsets for CZTS/Cds heterojunction
photovoltaic was measured through
first-principles calculation (FPC)
approach. And then Chen et al.
[28]
has measured the valence band
o
ffset for Δ Ev of 1.01 eV on the premise of the first principles calcu-
lation(FPC) approach. Similar to the above approach, the band align-
ment calculation of the
ΔEv of 1.01 eV is the conduction band minimum
(CBM) of absorber layer CZTS which is greater than the window layer
(CdS). Consequently, the band alignment was type II with
ΔEv of
0.54 eV and the conduction band minimum (CBM) of absorber layer
CZTS is lesser than the window layer (CdS) resulting in the band
alignment as type I
[29]
. The
first principle calculation methods employ
the basic idea in deciding the materials composition and the device
structure physics involved theoretically. Most of the experimental
works fail due to improper analysis of the proposed experiments and its
reliability when the device is fabricated. Hence its always preferred to
do the theoretical calculation on the proposed device before fabricating
the device. The understanding of the proposed device and the elemental
composition experimental analysis, fabrication of the device is done by
many methods. The following chapter discusses about the various
synthesis methods involved in fabricating CZTS based devices.
Table 1
CZTS Evolution - synthesis methods and its recorded e
fficiency.
Method
Precursor
E
fficiency (%)
Year
Reference
Sputtering
Cu, SnS, ZnS
6.77
2008
[31]
Electrochemical deposition
Cu, Zn, Sn
3.14
2009
[41]
NP-based method
Copper(II) acetylacetonate, zinc acetate, tin(II) chloride dehydrate, elemental sulfur
0.23
2009
[35]
Screen-printing
CZTS microparticle
0.49
2010
[36]
CBD-ion exchange
tin chloride dehydrate, zinc acetate dehydrate, aqueous Cu
2+
0.16
2011
[37]
Electron Beam deposition
Cu, Zn and Sn
5.43
2011
[52]
Sol gel-based method
Copper (II) acetate monohydrate zinc (II) acetate dehydrate tin (II) chloride dehydrate
2.23
2011
[32]
Pulsed laser deposition
in-house fabricated CZTS pellet
3.14
2011
[33]
Spray pyrolysis
not available
1.15
2011
[34]
Ink based fabrication
Not available
11
2012
[11]
Vacuum Sputtering
Cu2, Zn, Sn, S4
6.8
2013
[56]
Rapid Thermal Annealing
Cu
2,
Zn, Sn, S
4
2.56
2014
[82]
Sputtering
Cu2, Zn, Sn, S4
3.74
2018
[53]
M. Ravindiran, C. Praveenkumar
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