versity of Nebraska Press, 1988).
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T H E O R Y
ing, a structure o f the relation to texts. He speaks o f what others would call
the unconscious in terms o f mechanisms o f language: what happens inde
pendently o f any intent or volition o f subjects. He would interpret psycho
logical accounts as defensive ways o f creating intelligibility, o f countering
the threat o f the random and o f mechanical unintelligibility. An important
question here is the possible impact o f this way o f thinking on a poststruc
turalist psychoanalytic criticism that explores how texts are structured by
psychic conflicts or operations they theorize. At a time when psychoanalyt
ic readings may become the refuge o f a certain humanism, as in i\inerican
ego psychology, which sees us as most human in our “unconscious selves,”
insistence on impersonal mechanisms may prove salutary.
This leads to a further, particularly important, topic, what one might
call de Man’s development o f a materialist theory o f language, or his inves
tigation o f what he calls, in “Shelley Disfigured,” “the madness o f words”
(“No degree o f knowledge can ever stop this madness, for it is the mad
ness o f words”).^® One might say that what de Man first described as the
division at the heart of Being, and then as the complex relation between
blindness and insight that prevents self-possession or self-presence, is, in
Allegories o f Reading and his subsequent writing, analyzed as a linguistic
predicament, the figurai structure o f language that insures a division vari
ously described as a gap between sign and meaning, between meaning and
intent, between the performative and constative or “cognitive” functions
o f language, and between rhetoric as persuasion and rhetoric as trope.
Although literary theory has to a considerable extent assimilated the
demonstration that reading should focus on the discrepancies between the
performative and constative dimensions o f texts, between their explicit
statement and the implications o f their modes o f utterance, criticism has
not yet successfully explicated and worked with the more difficult and un
settling aspects o f de Man’s writing on language and occurrence. In em
phasizing certain nonsemantic aspects o f language, from the indetermi
nate significative status o f the letter, as in Saussure’s work on anagrams, to
the referential moment o f deixis, as in Hegel’s reflections on “this piece o f
paper” in the preface to the Phenomenology o f M ind, de Man stresses that
29. De Man, The Rhetoric o f Romanticism, 122.
30. To observe this shift occurring, see de Man, “Time and History in
Wordsworth.”
91
language is not coextensive with meaning, and rhetorical reading becomes
in part an exposure o f the ideological imposition o f meaning as a defense
we build against language— specifically against the inhuman, mechanical
aspects o f language, the structures or grammatical possibilities that are in
dependent o f any intent or desire we might have yet are neither natural
nor, in fact, phenomenal. How this resistance occurs in poetics or various
forms o f structural analysis is one o f the distinctive and difficult segments
of de Man’s writing.
There are, in de Man’s accounts, two levels o f imposition. First there
is the positing by language, which does not reflect but constitutes, which
simply occurs. De Man speaks o f “the absolute randomness o f language,
prior to any figuration or meaning.”^^ This does not mean, as some com
mentators affect to believe, that somehow agents are not responsible for
their words or actions; on the contrary, the possibility o f their being re
sponsible depends on the randomness o f language itself, the blind occur
rence o f its positing. De Man writes, “The positing power o f language is
both entirely arbitrary, in having a strength that cannot be reduced to ne
cessity, and entirely inexorable in that there is no alternative to it.”^^ Then
there is the conferring o f sense or meaning on this positing, through figu
ration— as in allegorical narratives o f law and desire, lurid figures of cas
trating and beheading, and less lurid figures as well. Positing does not
belong to any sequence or have any status; these are imposed retrospec
tively. De Man asks, “How can a positional act, which relates to noth
ing that comes before or after, become inscribed in a sequential narrative?
. . . It can only be because we impose, in our turn, on the senseless power
of positional language the authority o f sense and o f meaning” {RR, 117).
We transform language into historical and aesthetic objects, or embed dis
cursive occurrences in narratives that provide continuities, in a process of
troping that de Man calls “the endless prosopopoeia by which the dead are
made to have a face and a voice which tells the allegory o f their demise and
allows us to apostrophize them in our turn” {RR, 122). “We can therefore
not ask why it is that we, as subjects, choose to impose meaning, since we
are ourselves defined by this very question” {RR, 118).
31. De Man, Allegories o\
32. De Man, Rhetoric 0^
ed parenthetically in the text.
299.
, 116; hereafter abbreviated
RR and cit-
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T H E O R Y
For de Man the divergence between grammar and meaning becomes
explicit when the Unguistic structures are stated in political terms. De Man
writes o f “an unavoidable estrangement between political rights and laws
on the one hand, and political action and history on the other. The grounds
for this alienation are best understood in terms o f the rhetorical structure
that separates the one domain from the other.
That rhetorical structure
is the discrepancy between language conceived as grammar and language
as reference or intentional action, and the ineluctability and indeterminacy
o f this structural relationship is what de Man calls “text.” “The structure
o f the entity with which we are concerned,” writes de Man in his exposi
tion o f Г/^i? Sûm / Contract, “ (be it as property, as national State, or as any
other political institution) is most clearly revealed when it is considered as
the general form that subsumes all these particular versions, namely as le
gal text” {AR, 267). (I return to this problem o f the text in Chapter 4.) The
problematical relationship between the generality o f law, system, grammar,
and its particularity o f application, event, or reference is the textual struc
ture Rousseau expounds in the relationship between the general will and
the particular individual, or between the state as system and the sovereign
as active principle. The tension between grammar and reference
is duplicated in the differentiation between the state as a defined entit)^ {Etai} and
the state as principle o f action {Souverain) or, in linguistic terms, between the con-
stative and the performative fimction of language. A text is defined by the neces
sity o f considering a statement, at the same time, as performative and constative,
and the logical tension between figure and grammar is repeated in the impossibil
ity of distinguishing between two linguistic functions which are necessarily com
patible. {AR, 274-75)
What is the significance o f that aporia between performative and
constative? It emerges clearly in Rousseau’s question o f whether “the body
political possesses an organ with which it can state [énoncer] the will o f the
people.” The constative function o f stating a preexisting will and the per
formative positing or shaping o f a will are at odds, and while the system re
quires that the organ only announce what the general will determines, the
action o f the state or “lawgiver” will in particular instances declare or posit
a general will. This is especially so in the founding o f the state, for though,
33.
De Man,
Allegories o f Reading, г66; hereafter abbreviated y
4
Æ and cited
parenthetically in the text.
as Rousseau writes, “the people subject to the Law must be the authors o f
the Law,” in fact, he asks, “how could a blind mob, which often does not
know what it wants [promulgate] a system o f Law?” The structural tension
between performative and constative here in what de Man calls the text is
determinative o f history, with the violence o f its positings, its tropological
substitutions, and their “eventual denunciation, in the future undoing of
any State or any political institution” {AR, 274-75) ■
Finally, de Man’s late essays, collected in Aesthetic Ideology, undertake
a critique o f an aesthetic ideology that imposes, even violently, continu
ity between perception and cognition, form and idea, and which reading,
pursued to its limits (as it occurs in texts), is always undoing. Retrospec
tively, we can now see this project in earlier writings as well, in de Man’s
discussions o f Heidegger and in his critique o f the “salvational poetics”
which sees poetic imagination as a way o f overcoming contradictions, and
o f the “naïve poetics,” which “rests on the belief that poetry is capable
o f effecting reconciliation because it provides an immediate contact with
substance through its own sensible form.”^"* Much o f de Man’s writing is
staked on the premise that rhetorical reading, attentive to the working of
poetic language, will expose the totalizations undertaken in the name o f
meaning and unity.
The late essays in Aesthetic Ideology find in Kant’s work on “the aes
thetic” a critique o f the ideology o f the aesthetic developed, for instance,
by Schiller and applied, or misapplied, both in humanisric conceptions
of aesthetic education and in fascist conceptions o f politics as an aesthet
ic project (Walter Benjamin called fascism the importation o f aesthetics
into politics). Traditionally, the aesthetic is the name o f the attempt to find
a bridge between the phenomenal and the intelligible, the sensuous and
the conceptual. Aesthetic objects, with their union of sensuous form and
spiritual content, serve as guarantors o f the general possibility o f articulat
ing the material and the spiritual, a world o f forces and magnitudes with a
world o f value. Literature, conceived here not as literary works but as the
rhetorical character o f language revealed by analytical reading, involves, de
Man writes in The Resistance to Theory, “the voiding, rather than the affir-
34.
De Man, Blindness and Insight, 244. See also Christopher Norris, Paul
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