19. Ibid., 60.
o f language, the fact that the utterance itself is the reality or the event to
tion to two problems or issues. The first is this: if, as performative, an ut
terance is not true or false but felicitous or infelicitous, what does it mean
for a literary utterance to be felicitous or infelicitous? This turns out to
fronted, say, with the opening o f Shakespeare’s sonnet “M y mistress’ eyes
but what it does, how it fits in with the rest o f the poem, and whether it
works happily with the other lines. That might be one conception of fe
licity. But the model o f the performative also directs our attention to the
thus succeed in being a sonnet rather than a misfire? But more than that,
one might imagine, a literary composition is felicitous only when it fully
ed as a literary work, just as a bet becomes a bet only when it is accepted.
us in this direction. In sum, the notion o f literature as performative enjoins
us to reflect on the complex problem o f what it is for a literary sequence
Second, and more difficult, there is the question o f what is the act
lies in its freedom, in the fact that it “makes nothing happen,” as W. H.
150
C O N C E P T S
The next key moment in the fortunes o f the performative comes in
the work o f Jacques Derrida and Paul de Man. Austin’s analysis is taken up
by Derrida, particularly in “Signature Event Context” o f 1971.^’ This text
is not primarily devoted to Austin; written for a philosophical colloquium
on communication, it turns at the end to Austin to show how a very prom
ising approach to language, which resists the notion o f language as fun
damentally a series o f true or false representations, encounters difficulties
from not taking account o f the extent to which language is necessarily a set
o f iterable marks. Derrida praises Austin’s project o f exploring the force of
language through an analysis that does not focus on truth or falsity o f rep
resentation or make meaning dependent on intention, but he shows that
Austin, concentrating on seriously intended first-person present-tense ut
terances of the general form “I hereby do X . . . ” and excluding what he
regarded as falling outside o f “normal circumstances,” including the non-
serious, failed to recognize the citational, ritualistic character o f speech acts
in general. Austin sets aside as anomalous, nonserious, or exceptional par
ticular instances o f what Derrida calls a general iterability that should be
considered a law o f language— general and fundamental because for some-
it survives
In the valley of its saying . . .
it survives
A way of happening, a mouth.
Auden later changed “saying” to “making.”
21.
Delivered to a philosophy conference in Montreal, Derridas lecture ap
peared in Marges de la phibsophie (Paris: Minuit, 1972) and was published in Eng
lish in Glyph
I
(1977), together with a vigorous reply
b y
the speech-act theorist
John Searle. Derrida responded at length in “Limited Inc, a,
b ,
с . . . ,” Glyph 2
(1977). These two texts of Derrida’s, together with “Afterword: Toward an Ethics
of Discussion,” a substantial piece that ten years later reflects on issues raised in
this exchange, are published as Jacques Derrida, Limited Inc (Evanston, IL: North
western University Press, 1988). Gordon Bearn’s “Derrida Dry: Iterating Iterability
Analytically,” Diacritics 25, no. 3 (fall 1995): 3-25, is a brilliant translation of Derri
da’s argument in “Signature Event Context” into the vocabulary of analytical phi
losophy. For discussion of the notorious exchange between Derrida and Searle see
Culler, On Deconstruction, 110-28; Stanley Fish, “How to Do Things with Austin
and Searle,” in Is There a Text in This Class? (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press, 1980), 197-245; and Miller, Speech Acts in Literature, 69-111.
thing to be a sign it must be able to be cited and repeated in all sorts of cir
cumstances, including “nonserious” ones.
“Could a performative utterance succeed,” Derrida writes, “if its for
mulation did not repeat a codified’ or iterable form, in other words if the
formula that I utter to open a meeting, christen a boat, or undertake mar
riage were not identifiable as conforming to an iterable model, if it were
not thus identifiable as a kind o f citation?”^^ The possibility o f serious per
formatives depends upon performance o f a script. Despite Austin’s radical
challenge to traditional philosophy o f language and pursuit o f the idea o f
linguistic force, he backed away by excluding the citationality that Der
rida sees as the most general condition o f possibility for performative ut
terances. Though recognizing that performatives can always misfire or fail,
Austin failed to follow this perpetual possibility o f misfire to the general
iterability o f all signs that it implies. Derrida argues that, rather than op
posing serious to nonserious or citational utterances, as Austin does, one
should work to identify different sorts o f iteration or citation within the
framework o f a general iterability. One would end up with “different types
o f marks or chains o f iterable marks and not an opposition between ci
tational utterances on the one hand and singular and original utterance
events on the other.”^^ Austin, in bringing in “the serious” to buttress his
attempt not to make meaning dependent on intention, and focusing on
deliberate self-conscious acts o f the “I hereby . . . ” sort, fails to grasp the
extent to which such actions are a special case o f a more general performa-
tivity o f language.
In the Derridean revision and, for example, in Paul de Man’s use o f
the distinction between the performative and constative functioning o f
language, the performative is linked to the power o f language to posit, to
name. By using a noun, we posit the existence o f a referent. Naming is one
o f Austin’s performative speech acts, but his example is “I hereby name
this ship the Mr. Stalin,” where the question focuses on whether I am the
properly authorized person and whether this is in fact the right name, both
conditions o f felicity o f this official act {How, 23). He does not seem inter
ested in the way in which, by reiterated naming, we articulate the world,
even though we are not officially authorized to do so. The Académie fran
çaise develops French terms for technical inventions, such as the “toile
22. Jacques Derrida, “Signature Event Context,” Limited Inc, 18.
23. Ibid.
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