2
The Appearance of Schools and Classes
with an Advanced Course in Mathematics
During the second half of the 1950s, a broad campaign unfolded
in Soviet (Russian) schools, calling for the “polytechnization of
education” and the combination of education with “productive labor.”
A theoretical foundation for polytechnization was discovered in Marx
and Engels, about whom the author of a modern textbook remarks,
not without ironic condescension, that “they continued to adhere to
utopian socialist ideas about the comprehensive development of the
personality” (Dzhurinsky, 2004, p. 218). Indeed, the writings of Marx
and Engels, as well as Lenin, contain pronouncements to the effect that,
after spending four hours studying science, it is beneficial to spend four
more hours engaged in physical labor, which is both good for one’s
health and conducive to the convergence of mental and physical labor,
which was supposed to occur under communism (Bereday, Brickman,
and Read, 1960; Lenin, 1980; Marx and Engels, 1978). After the
Revolution, pedagogy set itself the specific task of creating a “labor
school” (Blonsky, 1919), although the overwhelming majarity of the
innovations introduced at this time were later declared to be “left-
leaning perversions” (Karp, 2010a). The partial return to the previous
point of view that took place after Stalin can be explained, of course,
as arising from a desire to purify communist theory, but in our view
it was more likely due to economic and political circumstances — for
example, the shortage of workers in factories and collective farms.
Without discussing in detail the way that the struggle for polytech-
nization unfolded during the second half of the 1950s and the early
1960s, let us note that schools switched from a 10-year program to
an 11-year program, with a large amount of time devoted to practical
training during the education. Practical training could vary, however.
Gugnin and Kirshner (1959) described how, from 1957 on, students
from experimental classes at their school worked at an electronics
factory. Initially, students worked three days per week (and attended
school for three more), and at the factory they worked in 10 different
shops. By the next year, the number of shops had shrunk considerably,
and curricula and teaching methods had to be changed considerably.
Gugnin and Kirshner also expressed a number of doubts concerning
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Russian Mathematics Education: Programs and Practices
the organization of practical training, remarking that it would be ideal
if students worked in the same educational shop under the supervision
of methodologically competent supervisors.
Shortly after Gugnin and Kirshner’s article was published, the
number of different occupations for which students in this school
(No. 38 in Leningrad) were being prepared decreased even further.
The school began concentrating on preparing laboratory physicists,
which led to greater attention to courses in physics and mathematics,
student selection, and other issues. Gradually, the school came to be
called a school with an advanced course of study in physics.
What happened with this school was not exceptional. A Leningrad
mathematics teacher, who was among the first teachers to work
in schools with an advanced course in mathematics (which started
appearing around that time), made the following remark in an interview
that the author of this chapter conducted:
1
Overall, this was the official situation: there were 11 grades then, and
after completing 11 grades, children would receive a diploma showing
that they had acquired some specialty. Our graduates were the first to
receive diplomas that qualified them to work as computer program-
mers, and if they did not go on to college, they could go to work as
programmers in the new computing centers that were being formed.
Mathematicians immediately latched on to this situation and under-
stood that it presented an absolutely fantastic opportunity to intro-
duce serious mathematics education into the school. (Ryzhik, 2005)
The first classes with an advanced course in mathematics in the
country began operating in September 1959 in school No. 425 in
Moscow under the supervision of S. I. Shvartsburd. In the following
passage, Shvartsburd (1963) made full use of the official terminology:
The problem of preparing specialists mathematicians with a secondary
education is becoming an important national economic problem.
An especially large role in its solution can and must be played by
mass secondary general-educational polytechnic labor schools with
practical training. (p. 4)
1
This and subsequent translations from Russian are by the author.
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