5
Toward a History of the Course in Geometry
in Russia (USSR)
Below, we will briefly describe the changes that the school course in
geometry underwent over the past half-century, without attempting
to provide a detailed account of the entire contents of the course
(apart from differences that will be specifically mentioned, the course
in geometry during the period in question has always been quite similar
to the course that exists today, as described above).
5.1
From Kiselev to Kolmogorov
Until the mid-1970s, the teaching of geometry in Russian schools was
largely based on the textbooks of Andrey Kiselev (1852–1940). The
first edition of Kiselev’s Elementary Geometry came out in 1892 (seven
years before Hilbert’s Foundations of Geometry!), with the following
notice on its title page: “For secondary educational institutions”
(i.e. for gymnasia and real schools). Before the Revolution, the
book gradually conquered the market. Rejected along with the entire
old school system during the first post-Revolution years, it made a
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triumphant comeback in schools during the 1930s (in a somewhat
revised version) to become the only geometry textbook used in the
Soviet Union. Kiselev’s textbook was reprinted even after it ceased to
be a recommended school textbook (Kiselev and Rybkin, 1995) and it
would be no mistake to say that, to this day, it has been considered by
many to be the embodiment of the “good old days,” when everything
in the schools was supposedly fine.
Kiselev’s textbook achieved its popularity for a reason. Written with
a knowledge of foreign (above all, French) publications, it grew out
of practical teaching experience — first and foremost the experience
of Kiselev himself, who spent many years working in secondary
educational institutions. Later, I. K. Andronov wrote that Kiselev
“knew his strengths and did not undertake to do more than he could
do” (Karp, 2002, p. 9). The textbook was rigorous and formally
deductive in character, but only to the degree that was accessible to
the students of Kiselev’s time.
For example, in the first sections on plane geometry, Kiselev freely
made use of visual arguments, and his proofs were also formulated
using “physical” language; thus, he would refer to figures being
superimposed on each other and so on. There is a story dating back to
the years after the Second World War (Boltyansky and Yaglom, 1965)
about a schoolboy taught, naturally, using Kiselev’s textbook — who
failed to solve a problem during a mathematics Olympiad because, as
he himself wrote, he was unable to prove that a straight line cannot
intersect all three sides of a triangle at interior points. The fact that
this eighth grader thought about such questions attests, of course, to
his exceptional giftedness: questions of this kind, which are certainly
quite appropriate for a course in the foundations of geometry, were
never raised in Kiselev’s textbook at all. What Kiselev proved, generally
speaking, was what an ordinary student at a gymnasium or a real school
would have found natural to prove.
Kiselev’s textbook was comprehensive and logical. Gaps in logic
could be found in it, but they were not noticeable to secondary school
students (and usually neither to their teachers). The textbook included
topics of a general logical nature as well, acquainting students with
the notion of the direct theorem, the converse, and the contrapositive.
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The course was well structured, and most of the sections into which
the textbook was divided could be easily covered in one lesson.
One clearly identifiable strand in Kiselev’s course pertains to the
geometry of constructions. Solving a construction problem involves
analyzing the conditions of the problem, and it is during this step
that the problem’s solution is planned; working out a construction
(i.e. creating an algorithm); proving that the figure constructed is in
fact the one asked for; and, finally, investigating what kind of data are
required to solve the problem and how many solutions the problem
has. Kiselev’s course in plane geometry contains practically no strand
that pertains to the geometry of computations, but for many years N. A.
Rybkin’s problem book was used in schools as a supplement to Kiselev’s
textbook, successfully complementing it.
It must be said, finally, that the dozens of editions that Kiselev’s
textbook went through permitted its author to continue improving
both its scientific and its methodological side.
When Kiselev’s textbook first arrived in Soviet schools, it was
assumed that it would soon be replaced by a new Soviet textbook,
which would take modern trends into account. This, however, did not
happen at that time. Over the years that followed, the textbook was
increasingly criticized and the need to replace it gradually came to be
recognized. Among the criticisms directed against it, the following may
be singled out:
• Kiselev’s geometry textbooks contained very difficult sections
(above all, the chapter on “Similarity”), which, with the introduc-
tion of mandatory universal eight-year education (a goal set in the
USSR at the end of the 1950s), were beyond the powers of most
students.
• Kiselev’s course was completely cut off from reality, from practical
applications of geometry, which clashed with the policy of the
“polytechnization” of education that was being implemented in
the Soviet Union during those years. Moreover, it contained no
interdisciplinary connections with other school subjects.
• Kiselev’s course failed to address many ideas and methods of
contemporary, mid-20th-century geometry. It made no mention
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of vectors or coordinates; it made almost no mention of transfor-
mations. The use of the limit was the only idea that it borrowed
from contemporary mathematics.
• The division of the five-year course in geometry into a three-
year course in plane geometry and a two-year course in three-
dimensional geometry produced the result that, over the three years
of studying only plane figures, most students lost their notions of
spatial figures, and to revive these at the beginning of the course
in three-dimensional geometry would be very difficult. Those
students who did not complete a full secondary school course
were exposed to no three-dimensional geometric concepts in their
geometry course at all.
• Finally, Kiselev’s textbook failed to meet several purely curricular
needs. For example, in those years, the previously existing separate
course in trigonometry was abolished in the USSR, and trigonom-
etry had to be represented more fully in geometry textbooks than
it was in Kiselev’s textbook.
In 1956, Kiselev’s plane geometry textbook was replaced with a
textbook by N. N. Nikitin and A. I. Fetisov, which was then itself
almost immediately replaced with Nikitin’s (1961) textbook Geometry
6–8. This textbook, which was very similar to Kiselev’s, contained
a number of important changes. In particular, the measurement of
segments, one of the most difficult topics in Kiselev’s textbooks, was
substantially simplified — Nikitin presented this topic on a purely visual
and intuitive level. The topic “Area” was covered by Kiselev at the
end of the course; in Nikitin’s textbook, it was shifted to the middle.
Finally, in addition to providing a systematic course in plane geometry,
Nikitin’s textbook presented information, on a visual–intuitive level,
about the most important three-dimensional geometric objects —
prisms, cylinders, pyramids, cones, spheres — and about the volumes
and areas of the surfaces of geometric objects. As a program of study
for ordinary, eight-year schools, the course in geometry was now well-
rounded and complete. This fact had social significance.
Nikitin’s textbook was actively criticized. Kolmogorov (1966)
published a long article detailing its shortcomings in the journal
Matematika v shkole. Perhaps it would have been possible to eliminate
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these shortcomings in subsequent editions, but it was assumed that
there would be only one textbook in the country. In the meantime,
textbooks prepared under Kolmogorov’s supervision began to appear,
and replaced both Nikitin’s plane geometry and Kiselev’s three-
dimensional geometry textbooks.
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