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Russian Mathematics Education: Programs and Practices
we will nonetheless name some of them. To begin with, a great deal
is determined by the policies of the Ministry of Education. From the
1930s on, a single geometry textbook was used in all schools in the
country (the same was true of all other subjects). Following what was
effectively a standoff between the Ministry of Education of the USSR
and the Ministry of Education of Russia (Abramov, 2010) during
the 1980s, the single textbook was replaced with several different
textbooks. With the collapse of the USSR, it was officially proclaimed
that any textbook that had been approved by the Ministry of Education
could be used for instruction, which formally opened the door to
diversity. In practice, however, the process through which textbooks
were approved was never completely straightforward and its rules were
never entirely transparent (suffice it to say that this process was already
skewed simply because the committee that oversaw it met in Moscow,
which meant that an overwhelming majority of its members were
usually Muscovites). In recent years, the procedure has become even
more complicated. It should be borne in mind that general materials
for programs are very often developed and approved by the Ministry
not before textbooks are written but on the basis of some existing
textbook, which thus ends up occupying a privileged position.
On the other hand, a school subject today requires more than just
a textbook: it requires an instructional package, which in addition to
a textbook includes teaching materials (a set of quizzes and tests to
supplement the textbook), a methodology manual for the teacher, and
workbooks, which have recently become widespread as well. Of course,
the creation of such a package requires a certain amount of support.
Whole departments of pedagogical scientific research institutes have
worked on the creation of some textbooks, while other textbooks
have been developed exclusively by groups of teaching enthusiasts.
Today, the creation of new textbooks is sometimes partly sponsored
by publishing houses, although the role of publishing houses in Russia
to this day cannot be compared with the role that they play in the
West. In Russia, authors’ enthusiasm and reliance on future success
have continued so far to play a primary role (although various grants
and direct subsidies from the government are also important).
With respect to general economic issues, it must be pointed
out that the significant deterioration of the economic position of
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teachers during the 1990s, as well as the significant cuts in financing
teachers’ professional development which took place then and continue
to take place now, had a negative impact on the teaching of all
subjects, including geometry. Financial problems largely limit the use
of computer technologies in geometry classes; even in major cities,
schools are usually insufficiently equipped with computers.
Returning to purely methodological issues, however, we should say
that the reduction in the number of hours allotted for the teaching
of mathematics, which took place over the course of several decades
in connection with certain changes in end-result requirements, has
resulted in much less time in geometry classes being devoted to the
discussion of theoretical questions, i.e. to the students’ reproduction
of proofs which they have studied, followed by analysis and criticism of
these proofs. The role of oral exams in geometry has become less and
less important in recent years; with the introduction of the Uniform
State Examination and an analogous form of official testing in ninth
grade, oral exams have in fact come under the threat of annihilation.
This, of course, has had an effect on the orientation of the course
in geometry, in which proficiency in oral reasoning is no longer as
significant as it once was.
For many years, the teaching of geometry in schools was signifi-
cantly influenced by college entrance exams (college admissions were
based on exams conducted by every educational institution). Analyzing
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