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of first- and second-year problems may be found in Fomin et al. (1996).
According to our observations, for the first two or three years with the
same group of students, mathematics circles usually adhere, to a greater
or lesser degree, to the topics and types of problems presented in this
book. Subsequently, both the topics and the format used for working
with the students begin to vary in accordance with the instructor’s
personal preferences (to repeat, a mathematics circle may function from
grade 5 to grade 11).
As an example, consider the circles of the Physics and Mathematics
Center of Lyceum 239 in St. Petersburg. Their participants are students
of ages 10–17 (grades 5–11). Thus, a student may attend the same
mathematics circle continuously for up to seven years (although, natu-
rally, some mathematics circles may be formed later). The mathematics
circles of the Physics and Mathematics Center meet twice a week, once
basic school classes end. These meetings may occur in a variety of
different formats; for example, they may be organized as:
• Lectures on theory;
• Individual problem solving;
• Discussions on solutions to problems with teachers;
• Solving problems collectively, in groups;
• Analysis of solutions by the instructor;
• Interviews and exams on theory;
• Seminars;
• Student reports, summaries, and independent projects and
research;
• Mathematical competitions.
Mathematics circles (especially the strongest ones) consume much
time. The program of a mathematics circle is meant to last for approx-
imately 140–150 hours of “general sessions” per year. However, to
this must be added no fewer than 80–90 hours of so-called “Olympiad
preparation sessions.” A single session of a mathematics circle can often
last for four hours.
Each session begins with thoroughly hearing out each child’s
solutions to all the problems assigned to him or her at the end of the
previous session. Such work requires the participation of a large number
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Russian Mathematics Education: Programs and Practices
of volunteers — usually older schoolchildren or university students who
serve as assistants to the teacher of the mathematics circle. After this,
the teacher presents the solutions to the problems on the blackboard,
with requisite theoretical commentary.
The sessions are devoted to solving problems in number theory,
graph theory, combinatorial problems and problems about games,
geometric problems, problems involving inequalities, and so on. From
a certain point on, instructors begin inserting sections on theory
that resemble (at least in terms of their content) what is ordinarily
studied in universities. Students acquire a thorough grounding in
geometric transformations (including inversions, affine and projective
transformations), discrete mathematics, groups, rings, fields, calculus,
elementary general topology and functional analysis, and combinatorial
geometry.
As an example, consider the content of the sections on “Elementary
Topology” and “Elementary Functional Analysis”:
The topology of the real number line. Topological definitions of the
limit and continuity on the real number line. Compactness on the
real number line. The general definition of a topological space. Sep-
arability axioms, connectedness axioms. Compactness. Topological
definitions of the limit and continuity. Homeomorphisms. Metric
spaces.
Complete metric spaces. Quotient spaces of topological and metric
spaces. Normed spaces. Banach spaces. Closed graph theorem. Open
mapping theorem. Hahn–Banach theorem. Geometric and analytic
application of topological ideas and methods.
We should stress, again, that mathematics Olympiads and other
competitions lie outside the scope of this chapter. However, they
occupy a very prominent place in the activities of mathematics circles,
not only as points of reference, sources of problems, and measurements
of achievements, but also as a continuous form of work. Olympiads
among mathematics circles are a regular occurrence, as are “math
battles” within a single mathematics circle and among different circles,
and so on. All of this undoubtedly contributes to the formation of
future winners of national and international Olympiads.
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It must also be stressed, again, that mathematics circles vary. Not all
mathematics circles, even if they are attended by students drawn from a
whole city, achieve the highest results. On the other hand, it would not
be mistaken to say that the system of mathematics circles, say, within
the city of St. Petersburg every year produces about 10 (sometimes
more, sometimes less) almost fully formed young mathematicians with
a mathematical education that is very good for their age. To this must
be added the annual inflow of literally hundreds of students from
mathematics circles into specialized mathematics schools, the core of
whose student bodies is largely composed of these students.
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