Russian Mathematics Education: Programs and Practices
4.2.2
Questioning students about theoretical material
Traditionally, a lesson in Russia began with a student being called up
to the blackboard to prove a theorem that had been proven during
the previous lesson. Naturally, such responses often relied on rote
learning, and it is no accident that the memoirs of 19th century writers
so often mention the cleverness of a teacher who had, for instance,
rearranged the letters that indicated the vertices of a triangle, thus
catching everyone off-guard (Karp, 2007b). Yet, the opportunity to
hear and talk about a given proof one more time, as well as the chance
to carry it out in front of others, was very beneficial to students’
mathematical development. Today, the inadequate time allotted to
the study of mathematics in the Russian school curriculum makes it
impossible for teachers to systematically devote to theoretical material
the attention that it deserves. Nevertheless, students’ knowledge of
theoretical material is still tested orally in class. Students are called up
to the blackboard and asked either to prove one theorem or another,
or to analyze one theoretical issue or another from beginning to
end. Most often, students are given such tasks in geometry classes
(for example, while studying parallelograms, one student might be
called up to the blackboard to prove that the opposite sides and
angles of a parallelogram are congruent, while another might be
called up to prove that a parallelogram’s diagonals bisect each other).
However, even in algebra or calculus classes, one comes across students
being questioned about theoretical matters. For example, a student
might get called up to the blackboard to prove the so-called Viète’s
theorem about the relation between the roots and coefficients of a
quadratic equation or to talk about the properties and the graph of the
function
y = x
3
.
The student usually spends about five minutes preparing the answer,
and the answer itself lasts from five to ten minutes, depending on
the question and the level of the student’s knowledge. A questioning
session of this kind may come as a surprise for the students in the class
(i.e. the students may have been asked to learn the proofs, but not told
when they would be required to talk about them), or it may come after
being announced during the previous lesson. Moreover, sometimes
during the previous lesson, the teacher will have listed the names of
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several students who might be called up to the blackboard during the
next lesson to answer questions about tasks already known to them.
Students’ responses to questions may also take the form of “reports”
on assigned topics which are prepared in advance.
While one student is responding at the blackboard, another student
might be given a chance to prepare for an answer at his or her seat. In
certain cases (particularly in the case of a relatively lengthy report),
a student may be permitted to use a plan or even a summary of the
answer, prepared in advance and written down on a sheet of paper
or in a notebook. Based on our observations, the report approach is
by no means always successful and sometimes results in the student
monotonously reading a prepared text, often something downloaded
from the Internet.
While a student is giving a lengthy oral response to a question,
the other students in the class must listen attentively. To engage their
attention, the teacher may ask them questions while the answer is being
presented, or they may be asked to provide oral or written responses to
the presentation they have heard. At the end of the presentation, the
students in the class, as well as the respondent himself or herself, may be
asked to grade the response and then compare it with a grade proposed
by the teacher. After a grade is given, it is useful to ask respondents
whether the grade makes sense to them, and if not, to explain it to them.
4.2.3
Solving problems on the blackboard
An enormous portion of the time devoted to studying mathematics
in Russian schools is spent on problem solving. As a rule, teachers
explain the theoretical material in class or tell students to read about
it in a textbook; only relatively rarely do they question students about
it. Problems are a different matter. The art of teaching manifests itself,
in this instance, not in the way in which teachers themselves solve
problems on the blackboard, but in the way in which they organize
problem solving by the students. Solving a problem in class differs in
significant ways from solving a problem independently with a problem
book, if only because the teacher can unobtrusively help the student
and direct him or her.
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Russian Mathematics Education: Programs and Practices
Solving problems generally means moving along an unknown path,
and therefore the student can naturally stop in order to think things
over. On the other hand, if the student thinks for too long, the lesson
will be lost. There are various approaches to dealing with this difficulty.
One method is as follows. Student A is called up to the blackboard
to solve a sufficiently easy problem (in the teacher’s opinion, this
student should be able to handle this problem). At the same time,
students B and C are given problems, told to read them, and asked to
prepare answers at the blackboard. While student A spends three or four
minutes solving his or her problem together with the class, student B
has time to get a sense of the solution of his or her more difficult
problem and go up to the blackboard, if not with a solution in hand,
then with its plan; at the same time, a fourth student, D, will receive
his or her own problem and get prepared while student B, and then
student C, give their solutions. Ideally, each problem should be selected
to match the level of the student to whom it is assigned: students should
be capable of solving the problem they are given. Other students in the
class may be drawn into solving a problem by being asked to suggest
their own approaches and to correct the mistakes they have noticed.
Such a process is virtually impossible to program in advance; to organize
it, a teacher must not only grasp the conditions and solution of the
problem, but also quickly determine which of the student-suggested
approaches to solving it are incorrect and which are correct, and which
of the correct approaches are rational and which are irrational; the
teacher must give the students the freedom to be creative and at the
same time lose neither the time nor the thread of the lesson.
Giving grades to students who are solving a problem on the black-
board is also a delicate matter. Quite often, teachers refuse altogether
to give formal grades for solutions to new problems presented on the
blackboard, believing that the threat of getting a bad grade becomes
a source of stress for students and makes it difficult for them to think.
An informal grade, however, is present in any case, since the problem’s
solution is either accepted or not accepted by the teacher and the class.
There exists an opposing point of view, according to which a grade that
is clearly stated by the teacher is useful both for the class and for the
student.
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Traditional Russian methodology required that students not simply
solve a problem on the blackboard, but also comment on and explain
their actions (for example, that they point out the equivalence of various
equations or identify those properties of functions which are used in the
solution, etc.). Today, in many classes, one can see teachers themselves
providing necessary commentary or asking students for explanations
once the solution has been written down, recognizing that students
should not be interrupted while solving an unknown problem.
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