Russian Mathematics Education: Programs and Practices
help them learn simple and effective techniques for solving problems,
especially algebraic equations.
Without presenting any fundamental difficulties, the study of
polynomials gives students the possibility of solving many problems
that belong to all other parts of the course. In particular, this theoretical
content can be effectively used in solving problems connected with
prime and composite numbers, while the ability to find the rational
roots of polynomials with integer coefficients allows the students not
to be too afraid of cubic equations and higher-degree equations —
in many cases, to stop relying on the art of grouping (i.e. heuristic
techniques) and to make use instead of the algorithmic methods of the
theory of polynomials; to simplify standard proofs; and so on.
It should also be noted that the study of polynomials provides a
fitting conclusion to the generalization of the concept of number, while
the parallelism between the theory of polynomial factorization and the
outwardly very different theory of integer factorization, unexpected
for the students, is important from a general educational and general
cultural point of view.
Let us consider some examples pertaining to this topic. The
following problem provides a useful illustration:
Is the expression
1
x
2
+1
a polynomial?
This problem calls for a well-founded answer. Naturally, the main
point here is for students to grasp the concept of a polynomial in
a substantive sense, and therefore excessive attention to formalities
in defining this concept is unlikely to be fruitful. Attempts to give
a logically impeccable definition of a polynomial will merely lead to
formulations with which probably not even all professional mathe-
maticians are familiar. On the other hand, in trying to identify a
polynomial among other expressions, a logically developed student
must understand that, strictly speaking, this cannot be judged merely by
the external form of an expression. Thus, for example, the expression
1
x
2
+1
is not a polynomial not because there do not appear to be any
algebraic transformations that can be used to put it into the appropriate
form, but because there actually are no such transformations. Indeed,
supposing that the given expression is a polynomial, then from the
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equality
1
x
2
+1
= f(x), where f is a polynomial of degree n, there would
follow the equality 1
= (x
2
+ 1)f(x); but this equality is impossible,
since its left-hand and right-hand sides have different degrees.
The algorithm for searching for rational roots must be worked
on until it becomes a familiar skill. Students must not experience
difficulties when they encounter problems of the following type:
• Find all the roots of the following polynomial:
3x
6
− 14x
5
+ 28x
3
− 32x
2
− 16x + 16 = 0.
• Factor the polynomial f(x) = 3x
4
− 2x
3
− 9x
2
+ 4 into linear
factors.
When studying divisibility and division with a remainder, there is no
need, for most polynomials, to list completely, much less to memorize,
the criteria of divisibility. On the contrary, it is far more useful to
emphasize to the students that many properties of the divisibility of
integers that are known to them are present in the divisibility of
polynomials as well. But the students must also be asked to prove
these properties (or some part of them) on their own, and in the
process of formulating these proofs they will conclude for themselves
that the arguments differ only because of their terminology and
symbolism.
Another theme that distinguishes the advanced course from the
basic one is connected with the concept of a symmetric polynomial. In
our view, students who have chosen the advanced course could have
already learned at the basic-school level how to solve various problems
that require only identity transformations aimed, to put it in a lofty
way, at expressing any symmetric polynomials in terms of elementary
symmetric ones. Note that various ordinary identity transformations
effectively constitute the central content of algebra in basic school, but
are often lacking in ideas and aimed mainly at simplifying expressions.
Such a situation even compromises mathematics to some degree in the
eyes of the students: it almost seems as if someone had deliberately
complicated simple expressions to create difficulties for students.
Meanwhile, the concept of the symmetric polynomial makes it possible
to introduce substantive problems of another type. For example,
expressing the sum x
3
+ y
3
+ z
3
through the elementary symmetric
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