nature. One type of metaphorical concept discussed in their work that is pertinent to
the issue in question is “orientational metaphors,” which deal with the concept of
spatial orientation and arise from our physical and cultural experiences—for exam-
ple,
happy is up; sad is down; more is up; less is down
. Orientational metaphors play
an important role in human conceptualization because most of our fundamental con-
cepts of human beings are organized in terms of one or more spatialization meta-
phors. In (19) the metaphorical concept at work is
taking action is up
, which is
grounded in our experiential basis that taking an action is moving upward. The meta-
phorical concept that is operative in (20) is
understanding is out
, which is based on
our experience that if we understand something we have the impression that the sense
of that thing comes out and reaches us. The metaphorical concept at work in (21) is
figuring out something is out
. This metaphorical concept is based on the physical ex-
perience that when we try to come up with something or to figure out something, our
thinking takes place in our head. When we are successful in figuring it out, it will
come out of our head and may be known to other people. In summary, the notion of
motion in examples (18)–(22) arises from metaphorical processes, albeit in different
ways. In (18) and (22), the motion arises from the metaphorical use of the main
verbs. In (19)–(21) the whole actions expressed by the verb phrases must be under-
stood in a metaphorical way, which gives rise to the metaphorical concepts described
above.
Notice that there must be semantic agreement between the direction of motion
associated with the verb phrase and that inherent in the lexical source of a success
marker. For example, in the egg-beating example in (7), because the eggs become
fluffy as a result of the agent beating them, the direction of the motion of the eggs
must be upward.
Pragmatic Contexts of Success Markers
Verb phrases co-occurring with success markers in-
herently suggest that the agent’s intention in carrying out an action has been fulfilled.
This observation may make us wonder why we need success markers in the first
place. We argue that those verb phrases normally imply that the agent’s goal in per-
forming an action is attained. If we want to emphasize fulfillment or nonfulfillment
of the agent’s goal, however, we can add a success marker to obtain such a pragmatic
effect. The appearance of a success marker requires a marked context because those
verb phrases by default imply such success on the part of the agent. Hence success
markers are not found frequently in affirmative (as opposed to negative) of declara-
tive (as opposed to interrogative) sentences. They are more prevalent in negative sen-
tences and in interrogative sentences.
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