Pernilla Hallonsten Halling

ilusa-sti /

beautiful-aDvz /

ilusa-lt

beautiful-abl

adv

‘The girl sings beautifully.’
⁵ Notably, Finnish (Uralic, not in my sample) has the same ending -sti to form Adverbs from Adjectives, though it is unclear whether this is also a case ending, see e.g. Sulkala & Karjalainen (1992: 349).

(5.15) Kham (Sino-Tibetan) (Watters 2002: 144)

o-hõ:na-ni

3SG-volition-ABL

do-ke-o
do-PFV-3SG
adv

‘He did it of his own volition.’ (lit. ‘by his own will’)
Finally, in Krongo (Kadugli-Krongo) and Sahaptin (Sahaptian), instrumental case is used to form Adverbs, as is illustrated for the latter in (5.16).
(5.16) Sahaptin (Sahaptian) (Jansen 2010: 454)

ánach’a-xi
again-sam^¯ e
nch’í-ki

loud-ins

i-háash-1nkik-a
3sg.sbj-breathe-trns-pst
wíyat-yaw...
far.away-dat
adv

‘Again, louder, he took a deep breath, way down deep...’

Table 5.6. Languages with case-formed adverbs

Language	Adverb	Case
Abkhaz (Northwest Caucasian)	pro-ST.V-n@	adverbial/predicative
Estonian (Uralic)	ADJ-sti, -lt	adverbial, ablative
Georgian (Kartvelian)	ADJ-ad /-d	adverbial
Kham (Sino-Tibetan)	N-ni	ablative
Krongo (Kadugli-Krongo)	a-N	instrumental
Sahaptin (Sahaptian)	ADJ-ki	instrumental
Turkish (Turkic)	ADJ art N-de	locative

case-formed adverbs no case-formed adverbs

Figure 5.4. Languages with and without case-formed adverbs

The languages with adverbs formed with case are summarized in table 5.6. Again, note that apart from including a case form, the encoding patterns vary and that some encoding patterns placed here may just as well be treated as derivational patterns, and vice versa. There is further a clear areal pattern here, in that primarily languages in central Eurasia tend to have case-formed adverbs, as illustrated in the map in figure 5.4.

3. Adverbials formed by reduplication

In many of the sample languages, reduplication occurs in adv, with various functions such as intensification. This means that the reduplicated items can be used in adv also when they are not reduplicated. As a strategy for forming adverbials, it is attested in four languages that all have different bases for reduplication. Hdi (Afro-Asiatic) has two different reduplication strategies in adv. Firstly, there are Adverbials like mìsí∼mìsím ‘fast, easily’, kì’ya´ kì’ya´ ‘in small quantities’, and nda´∼nda´na´ ‘immediately’⁶, where the origin of the reduplicated element is not always clear (Frajzyngier & Shay 2002: 233–234). Secondly, Adverbials can be formed from reduplicated Verbs combined with the locative preposition tà.

(5.17) Hdi (Afro-Asiatic) (Frajzyngier & Shay 2002: 234)

m`gha´m
chief
ta´
part
ghùn-a`f-t-ti^ˆí
send-up-ref-1sg
t`a

prep

xw´ay´a

run

t`a

prep

xw´ay´a

run

adv

‘It is the chief that sent me urgently.’

In Imbabura Quechua (Quechuan), reduplicated Nouns form Adverbials (Cole 1985: 116). In Ma’di (Central Sudanic), Adjectives, Adverbs themselves, and Nouns can be redupli- cated in order to form Adverbials (Blackings & Fabb 2003: 126–127).

(5.18) Ma’di (Central Sudanic)(Blackings & Fabb 2003: 126–127)

1. 
   ¯emú
   

go
¯Ez`E ¯Ez`E

early early

adv

‘He came quickly.’

2. 
   ká
   

3
r-¯O-âa¯
refl-3-do