Pernilla Hallonsten Halling

ebes=nam

good=aDv

fe-u
do-imp
adv

‘do this well!’

There are also languages that derive adverbs from other classes than adjectives, such as stative verbs (e.g. Kiowa, Kiowa-Tanoan) and nouns (e.g. Kham, Sino-Tibetan). Another strategy is to attach the same derivational ending or clitic to a number of different classes, which is the case in, e.g., Gooniyandi (Gunwinyguan) and Kewa (Nuclear Trans New Guinea) (see examples of the extensive derivation pattern in Kewa in section 9.4.2). Nama (Khoe-Kwadi) has a few Adverb-deriving suffixes, but the most productive one is -se, which attaches to Noun, Verb, and Adjective roots (Hagman 1977: 99). This is illustrated with a Noun in (5.11a) and an Adjective in (5.11b).
(5.11) Nama (Khoe-Kwadi) (Hagman 1977: 99, 152)

1. 
   {’^˜iip
   

he
ke
decl
kàó’ao-se

king-aDv

hã^`.
be
adv

‘He is being a king / He is behaving like a king.’

2. 
   xam´-i ke
   

lion-3sg.m decl
’a
cop
|úrú-ń
animal-3pl
hòá-ń tì
all-3pl of
kàó’ao káí-se-p
king big-adv-3sg.m

’a |aí-sa
cop strong-adj
|óm´
thick
{xáí, xápú
chest slim
kxáó, ts^˜ii
waist and
!háé-se

fast-aDv

ra
imp

!xóé-s
run-3sg.f
!’áróma.
because
adv

‘The lion is king of all the beasts because he is very strong, thick of chest, slim of waist, and runs fast.’
The Nama -se suffix is multifunctional: it is also attested as a “clause relator” and a subordinating suffix (Hagman 1977: 99, 130). Many adverb-deriving affixes and clitics in the languages where they are attested are multifunctional to different extents. In some languages, a marker that already has another primary function is used also to form adverbs. In Bininj Gun-Wok (Gunwinyguan), Adverbs are formed from Adjectives by attaching the class III prefix (ng)an-/man- (Evans 2003: 130). Hup (Nadahup) has the clitic =y1P which attaches to Adjectives to form Adverbs, though it also functions as a marker of telicity or contrastive focus (Epps 2008: 447). In Ainu (isolate), the Adverb- deriving ending -no, which attaches to stative verbs, is also a coordinate marker (Refsing 1986: 143), as illustrated in (5.12).
(5.12) Ainu (isolate) (Refsing 1986: 134)

1.