Pernilla Hallonsten Halling

List of Tables

1. 
   Geuder’s lexical classes of adverbs in oriented and manner uses 17
   
2. 
   Encoding of semantic classes and discourse functions 21
   
3. 
   Adjectives in Igbo (Atlantic-Congo) with corresponding semantic types 28
   

1. 
   Encoding of semantic classes and discourse functions 38
   
2. 
   Turning secondary predicates into primary predicates 52
   

1. 
   Encoding of semantic classes and discourse functions 58
   
2. 
   Language sample 75
   

1. 
   Languages with simple adverbs 80
   
2. 
   Mian Adverbs 81
   
3. 
   Property-denoting Adverbs in Jamul Tiipay 83
   
4. 
   Languages with simple adverbs but without simple adjectives 84
   
5. 
   Languages with adverb derivation 88
   
6. 
   Languages with case-formed adverbs 90
   
7. 
   Languages with adverbials formed by reduplication 91
   
8. 
   Languages with ideophonic adverbs 93
   
9. 
   Languages with adverbial affixes 94
   
10. 
    Languages with other adverbial encoding 96
    

1. 
   Languages with [attr pred] root overlap 101
   
2. 
   Languages with [pred adv] root overlap 102
   
3. 
   Languages with [attr pred adv] root overlap 105
   
4. 
   Languages with [attr pred] lexeme overlap 111
   
5. 
   Languages with [pred adv] lexeme overlap 113
   
6. 
   Languages with [attr pred adv] lexeme overlap 122
   

1. 
   Languages with an [attr pred] overlap on the construction level 130
   
2. 
   Languages with partial [pred adv] construction overlap 135
   
3. 
   Languages with a construction intermediate between pred and adv 140
   

1. 
   Languages with speed adverbs 154
   
2. 
   Languages with value adverbs 155
   
3. 
   Languages with noise adverbs 156
   
4. 
   Languages with simple care adverbs 157
   
5. 
   Mian General Modifiers 163
   
6. 
   Languages with general modifiers and corresponding semantic classes 164
   
7. 
   Lexicalized Basque -ki Adverbs 166
   

List of Tables

8. 
   Basque -to Adverbs 166
   
9. 
   Kiowa -óba` Adverbs 167
   
10. 
    Languages with lexicalization tendencies in adv 169
    
11. 
    Languages with adverbial affixes 170
    
12. 
    Semantic types and shifts from adjective to adverb usage 173
    
13. 
    speed/time adverbs 174
    
14. 
    speed/physical property/noise adverbs 175
    

1. 
   Encoding of semantic classes and discourse functions 179
   
2. 
   Languages with simple adverbs 181
   
3. 
   Encoding of semantic classes and discourse functions, expanded 182
   
4. 
   Encoding of semantic classes and discourse functions, expanded 183
   
5. 
   Semantic properties of prototypical parts of speech 185
   
6. 
   Semantic properties of prototypical parts of speech, expanded 186
   
7. 
   Comparison of Lithuanian Adjectives and Adverbs 189
   

List of Abbreviations

1. 
   first person
   
2. 
   second person
   
3. 
   third person
   

a subject of transitive verb
abl ablative abs absolutive acc accusative adj adjective
adjvz adjectivizer adv adverbial marker advz adverbializer agr agreement
agt agent an animate art article
asf adjective suffix ass assertive assoc associative attr attributive aux auxiliary
av actor voice
bm boundary marker
caus causative cert certainty clf classifier cli clitic
cnj conjunction cnt continuous cntr contrastive
comm common gender
cond conditional
cop copula
cvb converb
dat dative
decl declarative
def definite article dem demonstrative dep dependent marker
det determiner (article)
dir directional
dist distal
distr distributive ds different subject du dual
dur durative
dyn dynamic
ela elative emp emphatic emph emphatic erg ergative
exist existential
f feminine
fam familiar
fin finite verb form
foc focus
fut future
gen genitive
gl general topic
hodpst hodiernal past
hort hortative

1. 
   class marker I
   
2. 
   class marker II iii class marker III imp imperative inch inchoative ind indicative indf indefinite inf infinitive
   

ing ingressive

List of Abbreviations

ins instrumental int intensifier ipfv imperfective irr irrealis
iv class marker IV
lig ligature
lk linker
m masculine
msd masdar
n2 neuter 2
neg negative verb polarity
neut neuter nmlz nominalizer nom nominative npf noun prefix
obj object
part particle pers persuasive pfv perfective pl plural
pn proper name poss possessive post postposition
pot potentive (potential)
prd predicator prep preposition prev preverb
prox proximal/proximate
prs present
pst past
ptcp participle
q question
real realis
redup reduplication
ref referential refl reflexive rel relative rem remote
rempst remote past rep reportative rstr restrictive
sbj subject seq sequential sg singular
shift perspective-shifting suffix
spd speed
spec specific determiner
src source
srel superelative case
ss same subject
st stative
tel telic
top topic
trns transitivizer
ts thematic suffix
unc uncertainty
val validator
vblz verbalizer
vii class marker VII viii class marker VIII vn verbal noun

1. Introduction

It is well known in linguistics that adverb is an elusive label. It refers to a wide range of items and is used in a variety of senses. In language descriptions, adverbs are often differently described and, as a consequence, it is difficult to find cross-linguistically com- parable data on any given type of adverb. The aim of this thesis is to examine adverbs from a typological perspective. An undertaking of this kind requires strict delimitations, and this study is limited to adverbs that denote properties and modify within predicating expressions, roughly equivalent to manner adverbs. This is illustrated with examples from three different languages in examples (1.1-1.3).
(1.1) English (Indo-European)
The horse trotted slowly.
(1.2) Turkish (Turkic) (Göksel & Kerslake 2005: 139)

Özdemir
Ö.
o
that
şarkı-yı
song-acc.sg
güzel
good
söyle-di
sing-pst.3sg

‘Özdemir sang that song well.’
(1.3) Kham (Sino-Tibetan) (Watters 2002: 118)

koba:h

indiscriminate

pã:-zya
speak-cnt

‘He speaks indiscriminately.’
Adverbs that denote properties and modify within predicating expressions are functionally parallel to adjectives. Adverbs modify the verb in a predicating expression in the same way as adjectives modify the noun in a referring expression. In languages such as English, this parallel is particularly clear in the way that adverbs are formed from adjectives. Thus, the adverb slowly in (1.1) is derived with the ending -ly from the adjective slow, illustrated as an attributive adjective in the noun phrase in example (1.4).
(1.4) English (Indo-European)
Bob is riding the slow horse.
Building on the assumption that adverbs and adjectives are both modifiers, although within different domains (predicating and referring expressions, respectively), this study aims at comparing these adverbs to adjectives cross-linguistically. The comparison en- compasses both attributive adjectives (e.g. the slow horse) and predicative adjectives (e.g. The horse is slow ), since these are the two main functions in which adjectives oc- cur. Adverbs are compared to attributive adjectives, on the one hand, and to predicative

adjectives, on the other. This also entails a comparison of attributive and predicative adjectives.

The terms adverbs, attributive adjectives, and predicative adjectives are based on the functions that property words take, as modifiers within predicating expressions, modifiers within referring expressions, and predicates, respectively. The three terms are used as comparative concepts along the lines of Haspelmath (2010). Comparative concepts are “created by the typologist” (2010: 663), for the purpose of typological comparison. They are not to be confused with descriptive language-specific categories, nor with attempts to form cross-linguistic categories, but are tools employed for comparison (see further discussion in section 4.2). In order to distinguish between comparative concepts and language-specific categories in my own analysis, I follow the convention of, among others, Comrie (1976: 10) in capitalizing the initial letter of language-specific categories (e.g. “the English Adjective”), but writing comparative concepts in lower case (e.g. “adverbs are attested in X number of languages”).
Adverbs, attributive adjectives, and predicative adjectives, are examined in a sample of 60 languages from around the world. The typological comparison of the three functions consists of an examination of the encoding (i.e. structural shape) that adverbs, attributive adjectives, and predicative adjectives take. The aim of this comparison is to investigate to what extent the encodings of adverbs, attributive adjectives, and predicative adjectives differ, and to what extent they are similar or identical. When two or all of the functions are encoded in the same way in a specific language, I call this an encoding overlap.
In the comparison of encoding, the analysis is based on three different levels: the root level, the lexeme level, and the construction level. On the root level, the root alone is the basis for comparison, as the smallest morphological element of the property modifier. This can be exemplified by English slow, which occurs as a root within adverbs, attributive adjectives, and predicative adjectives. On the lexeme level, whole lexemes are compared, such as the attributive adjective slow and the adverb slowly within one language (i.e. English), or the Kham adverb koba:h ‘indiscriminately’ and the derived adverb slow-ly in English, for an example pair across two languages. It is of particular interest to the study whether languages have simple adverbs. The term simple here refers to single-word, monomorphemic lexemes. On the construction level, entire constructions are compared, such as the noun phrase that contains the attributive adjective, for instance, the slow horse, and the whole predication containing the adverb The horse trotted slowly. Encoding overlaps are analyzed at the root, lexeme, and construction levels.
The thesis aims to answer the following questions:

1. 
   How are adverbs, attributive adjectives, and predicative adjectives encoded, on the root, lexeme, and construction levels, respectively?
   
2. 
   To what extent can simple adverbs be found in languages around the world?
   
3. 
   Can simple adverbs be found in languages that do not have simple adjectives?
   
4. 
   Do simple adverbs tend to belong to the same semantic types cross-linguistically? The dissertation is divided into three parts: