70
Acoustics
Outdoor Acoustics
Here we are interested in much of what applies to room acoustics, so there is
some overlap, but diffraction, wind shear, ground effects, and dispersion really
only apply to very large outdoor spaces. But we expect to find fewer parallel
surfaces and small-scale resonances in rural environments than with human-
made buildings. The acoustics of cities used for noise abatement and transport
planning include both viewpoints. Generally speaking, outdoors we expect to
find significant changes in temperature and ground incline. The paths of sound
over water, over convex hills, into concave valleys, and through forests all pro-
duce remarkable alterations of amplitude and spectrum.
SECTION 5.4
Acoustic Oscillations
In the previous chapter we looked at oscillations in solid objects. Many of
these principles also apply to a volume of gas; however, the role of excitor and
resonator must be understood in different way. Many musical instruments, of
the
wind instruments
family, exhibit excitation by relaxation or by turbulence,
which we shall consider next.
Turbulence
Not all sounds are due to a balance of forces like simple harmonic motion. Noisy
sounds involve forces that are not easy to predict. Quasi-periodic sources, like
a flag flapping in the wind or the frictional sound of an object dragged on the
ground, produce waves within a certain band, which can be statistically deter-
mined, but not at a regular pitch. An important phenomenon to understand for
making water and wind sounds is turbulence.
Laminar Flow
For short distances and slow speeds, a fluid moves around things with an even
flow, called the
laminar
mode. Each bit moves at a speed such that there are
no big pressure differences between nearby volumes. Bernoulli determined that
pressure decreases with speed, and that for a fluid to pass around an irregular
object there must be some difference in speed. By geometry, the fluid must take
more than one unequal path, and therefore there must be a difference in pres-
sure somewhere. At low speeds this difference is spread evenly over a smooth
pressure gradient that follows the contour of the object. Right next to the
object’s surface is a
boundary layer
where the drag caused by frictional forces
greatly impedes the flow. Some distance away the flow is completely unaffected
by the object. At all points between these extremes we find a steady gradient.
In this case the flow makes no sound.
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