4
π
r
4
π
r
2
r1
r2
Figure 5.4
Geometry of the inverse square law.
5.2 Intensity and Attenuation
61
For the spherical case the area increases as the surface of a sphere, (
A
=
4
πr
2
), so the power loss is proportional to the square of distance. At twice a
given distance, the intensity (SIL) of a sound is one-quarter its original value,
and at ten times the distance it is one-hundredth as much. This is sometimes
stated as a 6dB loss per doubling of distance. At very large distances we can
take the waves to be planar. They are no longer spreading, so they carry a con-
stant energy per area regardless of distance. This is analogous to the assumption
that sunlight is parallel: having travelled such a large distance its divergence is
negligible. These losses are called
geometrical
because they have nothing to do
with damping and friction; they depend only on distance.
Transmission and Absorption
Geometric loss of power/pressure and loss of energy by absorption are different
things, and both must be considered when calculating the total attenuation
of a sound at some distance. Attenuation occurring by absorption happens
because of imperfect propagation that turns the sound energy to heat. Because
of damping, as sound moves through a medium some is lost for every unit of
distance travelled. In air or water
thermoviscous attenuation
happens because
of the
viscosity
of the medium. Since the energy loss by a particle in a viscous
fluid is proportional to its velocity, and the instantaneous velocity of particles
is proportional to the sound frequency, then greater absorption losses occur
for higher sound frequencies. This is known as Stokes law, which states that
attenuation
α
is given by
α
=
2
η
2
πf
2
3
ρc
3
(5.9)
so it’s proportional to the viscosity
η
and the square of the frequency f, and
inversely proportional to the density of the medium
ρ
and the cube of the speed
of sound in the medium c. Its units are Nepers per meter, but we can convert
to decibels per meter by multiplying by 8
.
685889. Although the effect is small,
it’s significant over large distances where more high frequencies will be lost this
way. It takes more than 12km for a 3dB loss to occur at 1kHz. Details may be
found in ISO 9613-1/2, often used for environmental calculations.
In solids, absorption can also happen because of the
plasticity
of the medium
and limitations on the
mean free path
. Wax, plastics, and the human body
which contains fat all absorb sound by this method. Densely packed wool or
sand absorbs energy since each part of it can move and dissipate energy with-
out producing an elastic restoring force. Another factor contributing to loss is
molecular relaxation
. No materials are purely elastic or viscous; real mediums
combine both properties leading to a
viscoelastic
model. Explanations of the
real behaviour of materials, such as those by Maxwell, show that molecules
experiencing a force (strain) give up a small amount of energy in a process
of relaxation. Both kinds of loss depend on temperature, pressure (and hence
amplitude of sound), the material properties of the medium, and the particle
velocity (hence frequency of the sound). When air contains water vapour it
introduces a greater loss than dry air. A typical loss is 0
.
02dB
/
m, which is
very small and only heard over quite large distances outdoors. The frequency
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