example: 13.12-1
Obtain the pole-zero plots for (i)
H s
s
( )
=
+
a
a
(ii)
H s
s
s
( )
=
+
a
(iii)
H s
s
s
( )
=
−
+
a
a
for positive and
negative values of
a
and sketch the impulse response for
a
= ±
1.
Solution
These are standard first-order network functions. They are stable ones for positive values of
a
and
unstable ones for negative values of
a
. They are important, yet simple, functions.
(i)
H s
s
( )
=
+
a
a
. Therefore,
h
(
t
)
=
a
e
-
a
t
u
(
t
). The pole-zero plot and impulse response are shown
in Fig. 13.12-1 for
a
= ±
1.
1
Re(
s
)
Im(
s
)
h
(
t
)
Time (s)
1
0.5
1
2
= 1
α
4
Re(
s
)
Im(
s
)
–h
(
t
)
Time (s)
1
2
1
2
= –1
α
x
(1, 0)
x
(–1, 0)
Fig. 13.12-1
Pole-zero plot and impulse response for
a
= ±
1
(ii)
H s
s
s
s
h t
t
e u t
t
( )
( )
( )
( )
=
+
= −
+
∴
=
−
−
a
a
a
d
a
a
1
The pole-zero plots and impulse responses for
a
= ±
1 are shown in Fig. 13.12-2.
4
x
(1, 0)
Re(
s
)
Im(
s
)
h
(
t
)
Time (s)
1
2
1
2
= –1
α
Re(
s
)
Im(
s
)
h
(
t
)
Time (
s
)
–1
1
1
1
2
= 1
α
x
(–1, 0)
Fig. 13.12-2
Pole-zero plot and impulse response for
a
= ±
1
13.52
Analysis of Dynamic Circuits by Laplace Transforms
(iii)
H s
s
s
s
h t
t
e u t
t
( )
( )
( )
( )
=
−
+
= −
+
∴
=
−
−
a
a
a
a
d
a
a
1
2
2
. The pole-zero plots and impulse responses are shown in Fig. 13.12-3.
4
x
(1, 0)
(–1, 0)
Re(
s
)
Im(
s
)
h
(
t
)
Time (s)
1
2
1
2
= –1
α
x
(–1, 0) (1, 0)
Re(
s
)
Im(
s
)
h
(
t
)
Time (
s
)
–2
1
1
2
= 1
α
Fig. 13.12-3
Pole-zero plot and impulse response for
a
= ±
1
example: 13.12-2
A second-order low-pass network function in standard form is given as
H s
s
n
n
n
( )
=
+
+
w
xw
w
2
2
2
2
where
x
is the damping factor and
w
n
is the undamped natural frequency as defined in Section 11.6 in
Chapter 11. Obtain expressions for impulse response of the network function for positive and negative
values of
x
in the range –1<
x
<1.
Solution
The poles are at
s
j
n
n
= −
±
−
xw
x w
1
2
. They are complex conjugate poles for –1<
x
<1. They are
located in the right-half
s
-plane for
-
1<
x
<0 and in the left-half
s
-plane for 0<
x
<1. They are located on
j
w
-axis at
±
j
w
n
when
x
=
0. The poles have a magnitude of
w
n
for all values of
x
in the range (
-
1,1).
The pole line of the pole
s
j
n
n
= −
+
−
xw
x w
1
2
makes an angle of cos
-
1
(
x
) with negative real axis
in the case of positive
x
and with positive real axis in the case of negative
x
. Thus the damping factor
magnitude is given by cosine of pole angle. See Fig. 13.12-4.
j
x
x
ω
σ
n
ω
–
n
ω
ξ
j
1 –
n
2
ω
ξ
1 –
n
2
ω
ξ
j
x
A
B x
ω
σ
–
n
ω
ξ
j
j
x
A
B x
ω
σ
–
n
ω
ξ
1 –
n
2
ω
ξ
j
1 –
n
2
ω
ξ
j
1 –
n
2
ω
ξ
j
1 –
n
2
ω
ξ
j
Fig. 13.12-4
Pole-zero plots for a standard second-order low-pass network function with
positive damping
The residue at the pole marked as
B
is given by
w
n
2
divided by the complex number represented by
the line connecting
A
and
B
in Fig. 13.12-4 with arrow towards
B
. This line is seen to be
2 1
2
(
)
-
x w
n
Sinusoidal Steady-State Frequency Response from Pole-Zero Plots
13.53
in length and it makes –90
°
with positive real axis. Similarly, the residue at the pole marked as
B
is
given by
w
n
2
divided by the complex number represented by the line connecting
A
and
B
in Fig. 13.12-4
with arrow towards
B
. This line is seen to be
2 1
2
(
)
-
x w
n
in length and it makes 90
°
with positive
real axis.
Therefore,
h t
e
e
e
e
n
n
j
j
t
j
j
t
n
n
( )
(
)
=
−
+
− +
−
(
)
−
− −
−
(
)
w
x w
x
x w
x
x w
2
2
90
1
90
1
2 1
0
2
0
2
=
−
+
−
−
+
−
−
+
u t
e
e
e
n
t
j
t
j
t
n
n
( )
(
)
(
)
(
)
w
x
x
x w
x w
2 1
2
1
90
1
90
2
0
2
0
=
−
−
+
=
−
−
−
−
−
u t
e
t
u t
e
n
t
n
n
t
( )
cos(
) ( )
sin
w
x
x w
w
x
x
x
x
1
1
90
1
1
2
2
0
2
22
w
n
t u t
( )
This response is shown in Fig. 13.12-5 for
w
n
=
1 and
x
=
0.7, 0.3, 0.1 and 0.05.
We observe that as the poles get closer and closer to
j
w
-axis, the impulse response oscillations
become more and more under-damped and last for many cycles.
The impulse response for
x
= -
0.05 in Fig. 13.12-6 shows the unbounded nature of impulse
response of a network function with poles on right-half
s
-plane.
13.13
sInusoIdal steady-state frequency response from pole-Zero plots
Let
H s
K
s z s z
s z
s p s p
s p
m
m
( )
(
)(
) (
)
(
)(
) (
)
=
−
−
−
−
−
−
1
2
1
2
be a network function defined in a linear time-invariant
circuit and let all the poles of this network function be in the left-half of
s
-plane excluding
j
w
-axis.
The zeros can be located anywhere in
s
-plane. We know that
H
(
s
), the network function, is a
complex
gain
if we
evaluate
it at a particular value of
s
. In that case, it gives the complex amplitude of the
forced response with an input of
e
st
with the value of
s
same as the value at which
H
(
s
) was evaluated.
Sinusoidal steady-state frequency response function of a stable circuit is given by the complex gain
Fig. 13.12-5
Impulse response of
standard second-order
network function for
various damping factors
–0.5
= 0.7
0.5
Time (
s
)
h
(
t
)
0
5
10 20
ξ
= 0.05
ξ
= 0.1
ξ
= 0.3
ξ
Fig. 13.12-6
Impulse response of
standard second-
order network
function for
x
= -
0.05
h
(
t
)
Time
(
s
)
–2
–4
4
2
5
10 15 20
13.54
Analysis of Dynamic Circuits by Laplace Transforms
offered by the circuit to
e
j
w
t
signal. Therefore,
H
(
s
)
evaluated
with
s
=
j
w
gives the frequency response
function provided the network function is stable. Thus,
H j
K
j
z
j
z
j
z
j
p
j
p
j
p
m
m
(
)
(
)(
) (
)
(
)(
) (
)
w
w
w
w
w
w
w
=
−
−
−
−
−
−
1
2
1
2
(13.13-1)
H
(
j
w
) is a complex function of a real variable
w
. The plots of |
H
(
j
w
)| versus
w
and
∠
H
(
j
w
) versus
w
yield the
frequency response plots
of the network function. The first is called the
magnitude plot
and
the second is called the
phase plot
.
13.13.1
three Interpretations for
H
(
j
v
)
We saw that we can interpret the network function
H
(
s
) in three ways in Section 13.11. Three
interpretations of
H
(
j
w
) follow from this.
(i)
H
(
j
w
) is the ratio of complex amplitudes of output complex exponential and input complex
exponential when input complex exponential is of the form
Ae
j
w
t
. Equivalently,
H
(
j
w
) is the
complex amplitude of output when input is
e
j
w
t
(not
e
j
w
t
u
(
t
)). The signal
e
-
j
w
t
is a signal that is
different from
e
j
w
t
. Hence,
H
(
j
w
) is a
two-sided
function from this point of view.
If input is
e
j
w
t
u
(
t
), then,
H
(
j
w
)
e
j
w
t
gives the forced response component (same as the
steady-state response component).
(ii)
H
(
j
w
) is the ratio of Laplace transform of zero-state response to Laplace transform of input
when input is of the form
Ae
j
w
t
u
(
t
). The signal
Ae
-
j
w
t
u
(
t
) is not the same as
Ae
j
w
t
u
(
t
). Hence,
H
(
j
w
) is a
two-sided
function from this point of view too.
(iii)
H
(
j
w
) is the expansion of the impulse response
h
(
t
) of the circuit in terms of complex
exponential signals drawn from
j
w
axis in
s
-plane. It expands the time-domain signal into the
sum of complex exponential functions of
e
j
w
t
type (
i.e.,
essentially in terms of sinusoids) with
w
value ranging from
-∞
to
∞
. Hence,
H
(
j
w
) is a
two-sided
function from this point of view too.
There are two ways to solve the problem of finding the
steady-state output
when input variable
is cos
w
o
t
u
(
t
). The first method is to express cos
w
o
t
u
(
t
) as Re(
e
j
t
o
w
)
u
(
t
) and express the output as
Re[
H j
e
o
j
t
o
(
)
w
w
]
u
(
t
). This method was called
Phasor
Method
in Chapter 8. This method results in
the steady-state response component and is based on the first interpretation of
H
(
j
w
).
Re[ (
)
] Re[| (
) |
] | (
) | cos[
(
)
H j
e
H j
e
e
H j
t
o
j
t
o
H j
j t
o
o
o
o
w
w
w
w
w
w
w
=
=
+ ∠
∠
H
H j
o
(
)]
w
. Now, there is no
harm if
H
(
j
w
) is thought of as a
single-sided function of
w
provided we interpret the magnitude of
H
(
j
w
) as the amplitude of output sinusoidal waveform with input amplitude of 1 and the phase of
H
(
j
w
)
as the phase angle by which the output sinusoidal waveform leads the input sinusoidal waveform.
The second way is to express cos
w
t
u
(
t
) as 0.5
e
j
w
t
u
(
t
)
+
0.5
e
-
j
w
t
u
(
t
) by applying Euler’s
formula and express the
steady-state output
as
0 5
. [ (
)
(
)
]
H j
e
H
j
e
o
j
t
o
j
t
o
o
w
w
w
w
+
−
−
.We
have seen in Chapter 7 that
H
j
H j
(
) [ (
)]
*
−
=
w
w
.Therefore the steady-state output will be
Re[ (
)]cos
Im[ (
)]sin
| (
) | cos[
(
)]
H j
t
H j
t
H j
t
H j
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
w
w
w
w
w
w
w
−
=
+ ∠
; same as in the first
method. This method also is based on the first interpretation of
H
(
j
w
) but uses a two-sided version of
H
(
j
w
).
Frequency response function is not new to us. We had dealt with the frequency response of first-order
circuits and second order circuits in detail earlier in the book. But the observation that
H
(
j
w
) can be
evaluated by evaluating
H
(
s
) on
j
w
-axis leads to a graphical interpretation for sinusoidal steady-state
frequency response function based on the pole-zero plot of
H
(
s
). This interpretation affords an insight
into the variation of magnitude and phase of
H
(
j
w
) without evaluating it at all values of
w
. It helps us
to visualise the salient features of frequency response function without extensive calculations.
Sinusoidal Steady-State Frequency Response from Pole-Zero Plots
13.55
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