Y
-
1
matrix.
We skip the details and state the second form of Reciprocity Theorem.
Second form of
Reciprocity Theorem
The ratio of current measured in a short-circuit across a pair of terminals to the
excitation voltage applied at another pair of terminals is invariant to an interchange
of excitation terminals and response terminals in the case of a linear time-invariant
resistive circuit with no independent sources inside.
The third and last form of this theorem can be obtained by considering the circuits shown in
Fig. 5.7-3.
5.32
Circuit Theorems
(b)
A linear resistive
circuit with
no sources
k
m
i
I
j
i
ij
(a)
A linear resistive
circuit with
no sources
k
m
i
V
j
+
–
+
–
i
S
v
km
Fig. 5.7-3
Circuit illustrating third form of Reciprocity Theorem
We calculate the ratio
v
V
km
in the circuit of Fig. 5.7-3 (a) first.
Node voltage at node-i
=
v
i
=
a
ii
i
S
– a
ij
i
S
Node voltage at node-j
=
v
j
=
-
a
jj
i
S
+
a
ji
i
S
Node voltage at node-k
=
v
k
=
a
ki
i
S
– a
kj
i
S
Node voltage at node-m
=
v
m
=
a
mi
i
S
– a
mj
i
S
The node voltages at node-i and node-j are constrained to have a difference of V.
a
ii
i
S
– a
ij
i
S
–(
-
a
jj
i
S
+
a
ji
i
S
)
=
V
⇒
i
V
a
a
a
a
s
ii
jj
ij
ji
=
+
−
−
Substituting this expression for i
S
in the equations for v
k
and v
m
, we get the ratio of voltage measured
across the second pair of terminals to the voltage applied at the first pair of terminals as
v
V
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
km
ki
mi
mj
kj
ii
jj
ij
ji
=
−
+
−
+
−
−
(
) (
)
(5.7-3)
Now we calculate
i
I
ij
in the circuit Fig. 5.7-3 (b).
v
i
=
a
ii
i
ij
– a
ij
i
ij
+
a
ik
I – a
im
I
v
j
=
-
a
jj
i
ij
+
a
ji
i
ij
+
a
jk
I – a
jm
I
But v
i
=
v
j
\
0
=
(a
ii
i
ij
– a
ij
i
ij
+
a
ik
I – a
im
I) – (
-
a
jj
i
ij
+
a
ji
i
ij
+
a
jk
I – a
jm
I)
Solving this we get the ratio of current measured in short-circuit across the first pair of terminals
to the current source applied at across the second pair of terminals as
i
I
ik
im
jm
jk
ii
jj
ij
ji
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
=
−
+
−
+
−
−
(
) (
)
(5.7-4)
Comparing the two expressions in Eqns. 5.7-3 and 5.7-4 and using the symmetry of
A
(i.e., the
inverse of nodal conductance matrix), we see that the two ratios are equal.
Third form of
Reciprocity Theorem
The ratio of current measured in a short-circuit across first pair of terminals to the
excitation current applied at the second pair of terminals is same as the ratio of voltage
measured across the second pair of terminals to the voltage applied at the first pair
of terminals in the case of a linear time-invariant resistive circuit with no independent
sources inside. (Refer Fig. 5.7-3 for polarity of currents and voltages.)
Reciprocity Theorem
5.33
Note that the key to Reciprocity Theorem is that (i) the nodal conductance matrix
Y
(and mesh
resistance matrix
Z
) of the circuit must be time-invariant and symmetric and (ii) excitation should be
applied only at terminals identified, i.e., there should not be independent sources present within the
circuit.
Y
and
Z
matrices of a circuit containing linear two-terminal time-invariant resistors will be
symmetric. Hence such circuits will obey all the three forms of Reciprocity Theorem unconditionally.
Dependent sources, even if they are linear, bilateral and time-invariant, can make these matrices
asymmetric. However, they need not do so always. There can be dependent sources in the circuit and
yet the circuit may have symmetric
Y
and
Z
matrices. Reciprocity Theorem will hold for such circuits
too. See the following example.
example: 5.7-1
Show that Reciprocity Theorem is valid for the circuit in Fig. 5.7-4.
3
a
b
c
d
2
Ω
3
Ω
3
Ω
+
+
+
–
–
–
i
x
i
x
v
x
v
x
Fig. 5.7-4
Circuit for Example 5.7-1
Solution
We find the mesh resistance matrix of the circuit first and verify whether it is symmetric and time-
invariant. We know that the mesh resistance matrix of a circuit can be found from its deactivated
version. Since excitation can be applied only across a
-
b and c
-
d, we short these two ports (since
for mesh analysis voltage source is the excitation source) and get the circuit in Fig. 5.7-5. The mesh
currents are identified in it.
3
a
b
c
d
2
Ω
3
Ω
3
Ω
+
+
+
–
–
–
i
x
i
x
i
1
i
2
v
x
v
x
Fig. 5.7-5
Circuit to obtain
Z
matrix in Example 5.7-1
The mesh equations are written for the two meshes after observing that i
x
=
i
1
and v
x
=
3i
2
.
2 i
1
-
3 i
2
+
3 (i
1
-
i
2
)
=
0 and 3 (i
2
-
i
1
) –3 i
1
+
3 i
2
=
0 are the mesh equations. Therefore, the mesh
resistance matrix
Z
is
Z
=
−
−
5
6
6
6
and it is a symmetric time-invariant matrix. Therefore, Reciprocity Theorem will
be valid in the circuit.
We verify the first form by using the circuit configurations shown in Eqn. 5.7-4. A 1A independent
current source is used to drive the a
-
b terminal pair first and the voltage v
cd
is noted. Then the same
5.34
Circuit Theorems
current source is used to drive the c
-
d terminal pair and the voltage v
ab
is noted. We expect to see that
v
ab
=
v
cd
.
(a)
(b)
1 A
1 A
3
a
b
a
b
c
d
c
d
2
Ω
3
Ω
3
Ω
3
Ω
3
Ω
2
Ω
+
+
+
+
–
+
–
–
–
–
i
x
i
x
i
x
v
x
v
x
3
+
+
+
–
–
–
i
x
v
x
v
x
Fig. 5.7-6
Circuits for verifying Reciprocity Theorem in Example 5.7-1
The second mesh current in circuit of Fig. 5.7-6 (a) is zero. First mesh current is 1 A. Applying
KVL in the second mesh,
-
3
×
1
-
3
×
1
+
3
×
0
+
v
cd
=
0
⇒
v
cd
=
6 V.
The first mesh current in circuit (b) is zero. Second mesh current is
-
1 A. Applying KVL in the first
mesh,
-
v
ab
+
2
×
0 – (3
× -
1)
+
3
×
1
=
0
⇒
v
ab
=
6 V.
Thus, we see that first form of the theorem holds in this circuit. It may be verified in a similar
manner that the other two forms are also valid in this circuit.
5.8
maxImum power tranSfer theorem
All electrical and electronic circuits fall under one of the three broad categories – power generation
and delivery circuits, power conditioning circuits and signal generation and conditioning circuits.
In a power delivery context, one part of the circuit acts as a power source and delivers power to the
other part of the circuit. In the process of delivering power to load part of the circuit, the source part
of the circuit ends up dissipating some of the power within itself. This compromises the efficiency of
power delivery as well as the power availability to the load at the same time. Hence the power delivery
capability of source part of the circuit for a given load circuit is of crucial practical significance – both
in high-power electrical circuits (kW to hundreds of MW) and low-power electronic circuits (pW to
100’s of W). We address the issue of power delivery capability of a source circuit in this section.
(a)
Linear
memoryless
circuit with
sources
Load
circuit
i
v
+
–
(b)
Load
circuit
i
v
+
–
+
–
v
OC
R
O
Fig. 5.8-1
(a) The power delivery context (b) Power delivery circuit
replaced by its Thevenin’s equivalent
Figure 5.8-1 shows a linear time-invariant memoryless circuit containing one or more independent
DC sources delivering power to a load circuit that may be linear or non-linear. It is assumed that
the constraints required for applying Thevenin’s theorem are satisfied by the entire circuit – i.e., the
circuits in Fig. 5.8-1 (a) and (b) have unique solution and there is no interaction between the delivery
circuit and load circuit other than through the common terminals. Then, we can replace the power
delivery circuit by its Thevenin’s equivalent comprising an open-circuit voltage in series with the
Thevenin’s equivalent resistance.
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
5.35
We state the Maximum Power Transfer Theorem when the power delivery circuit is a linear time-
invariant memoryless circuit containing one or more independent DC sources.
The power delivered by a linear time-invariant memoryless circuit containing independent
DC sources is a maximum of
v i
oc sc
4
when it is delivering
2
sc
i
to the load where
v
oc
is the
open-circuit voltage in its Thevenin’s equivalent and
i
sc
is the short-circuit current in its
Norton’s equivalent.
We show this as follows:
p vi
v
R i i
dp
di
v
R i
oc
o
oc
o
= =
−
∴
=
−
[
]
2
Equating the derivative of power with respect current to zero, we get the condition for maximum
power transfer as i
v
R
i
R
v
i
oc
o
sc
o
co
sc
=
=
=
2
2
since
. The value of maximum power transferred to load
circuit is
=
−
×
=
v
R i
i
v i
oc
o sc
sc
oc sc
2
2
4
w. This transfer will take place with a load voltage of
v
oc
2
V and
load current of
i
sc
2
A. The internal dissipation inside the power delivery circuit under this condition
will be same as the power transferred and the efficiency of power delivery will be 50%.If the load
circuit is a single resistor of value R
L
, then the condition for maximum power transfer reduces to
R
L
=
R
o
and the maximum power transferred will be
v
R
oc
L
2
4
w.
example: 5.8-1
A DC voltage source of 200 V with an internal resistance of 2
W
delivers power to another DC source
in series with a resistor R. The value of this DC source is 50 V and the two sources oppose each other
in the circuit. Find the value of R and the power transferred to load circuit if maximum power transfer
is to take place.
Solution
Maximum power transfer takes place when the source is delivering half its short-circuit current, i.e.,
100 A in this case. The voltage across the load circuit under this current flow has to be half of the open-
circuit voltage of the source. Therefore, the 50 V source and R together should absorb 100 V when 100
A is flowing through them. Then R must be 0.5
W
.
The maximum power transferred will be 100 V
×
100 A
=
10 kW of which 5 kW will go into the
50 V DC source and 5 kW will be dissipated in 0.5
W
resistor. The internal dissipation of the 200 V
source will be 10 kW.
It should be obvious that we do not intend to load an electrical power source to the maximum power
transfer level since it will result in inefficient operation. But, a comparison between the maximum
power that the source can deliver and the power actually required in the load will immediately reveal
to us the level of efficiency we can hope for in the delivery system. However, when efficiency is of
5.36
Circuit Theorems
no concern and signal strength is of prime concern, we take care to achieve maximum power transfer
condition in the circuit. This is relevant in low-power electronic circuits. The source signal may be
weak and it may come through a high R
o
. R
L
may be very small compared to the internal resistance.
Then some kind of matching circuit that makes the low R
L
appear high and equal to R
o
to the source
will be interposed between the source and load.
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