International Criminal Law
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place in or by a national of a State party;
24
where the territorial State or the State of
the nationality of the accused are parties to the Statute;
25
or where the Security Council
acting under Chapter VII of the UN Charter refers a situation to the ICC prosecutor.
26
Whereas, under Art 12(1), a party to the Statute is subject to the automatic jurisdiction
of the court, non-parties under para 2 (that is, the territorial State or the State of the
accused’s nationality) can accept ICC jurisdiction with regard to a specific case or
situation by lodging a declaration to that effect.
27
The US vehemently opposed the
type of jurisdiction envisaged under Art 12(2) because, in the opinion of its delegates,
this provision violates the rule that treaties can only bind contracting parties.
28
This
is a valid legal argument, since Art 12(2) establishes ICC jurisdiction if either the
territorial or the State of nationality of the accused is a party to the court’s Statute or
has made a declaration under Art 12(3), despite the fact that one of these States may
not be a party and be, thus, adversely affected. A relevant example would be where
a US national—the US not being a party to the court’s Statute—is accused of having
committed an offence in State B, which is either a party to the Statute or has lodged
a declaration, and by succumbing to the ICC’s authority, thus gives the ICC
jurisdiction over the accused. In this case, the US, although not a party to the ICC
Statute, is nonetheless directly affected by its application. Justification for this
provision cannot be substantiated with regard to the principles of territorial or active
personality jurisdiction, because these are principles pertaining solely to the judicial
competence of individual States and find no application vis-à-vis an international
tribunal, whose competence is only delineated by its statute. Rather, jurisdiction
under Art 12(2) is based on the court’s character as a universal institution whose
legal personality necessarily affects the interests of third States. Moreover, the court’s
jurisdiction is curtailed by a plethora of procedural and substantive safeguards
against possible abuse. Article 12(2) is clearly inconsistent with treaty law, but it is
not entirely clear whether it is also inconsistent with contemporary developments
in international criminal justice, which have eroded the right of States to freely invoke
the principle of ‘domestic jurisdiction’ in order to shield their nationals from serious
human rights violations. After the adoption of the ICC Statute, the US concluded a
number of bilateral treaties with other States, which precluded investigation and
prosecution of US nationals accused of offences falling within the jurisdiction of the
ICC. These so called ‘impunity agreements’ were signed among others by Romania,
Tajikistan and Israel.
29
As far as Member States are concerned, these agreements
violate their obligations under Art 86 of the Statute to co-operate with the court in
the investigation and prosecution of alleged offenders. These States have argued
that Art 98(2) of the Statute does not oblige them to adhere to ICC surrender requests
that violate existing treaty obligations, thus legitimising the ‘impunity agreements’.
This is fallacious, since Art 98(2) concerns Status of Forces Agreements (SOFAs),
ensuring that they will not be nullified—that is, that the sending State will retain
24
ICC Statute, Arts 12(1) and 14(1).
25
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