Chapter 11: Evidence before the Ad Hoc Tribunals
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In the ICTR, any historian can be called an expert. In many cases the expertise of Dr
Alison DesForges, a historian onAfrican affairs, was received as expert on the Rwandan
genocide. While not in Rwanda when the genocide took place, she based her
conclusions on what others have narrated. Moreover, her book
Leave None to Tell the
Story,
submitted by Human Rights Watch, is full of conclusions and opinions on the
ultimate issue. In the
Military I
case, this was particularly clear. Her expert report
contained four chapters specifically on the guilt of each person accused in the case in
which she was testifying. This clearly is the task of the judges. Moreover, she based
her assessments on anonymous testimonies. Finally, one of her areas of expertise
concerned human rights, a legal area in relation to which judges, being lawyers
themselves, do not arguably need expert advice. Amongst others, these three issues,
that is, (1) the violation of the ultimate issue rule, (2) the deprivation of the right to
learn the identity of persons or sources that form the basis of the expert opinion, and
(3) the rule that the expert opinion is only relevant where the area of expertise goes
beyond the knowledge of the judges, were raised by the four defence teams.
With regard to the first issue, the Trial Chamber held:
With respect to the sceptre raised by the defence that Dr DesForges should not be
permitted to opine upon the ultimate issue, lest the parties forget, this matter is
being tried by a panel of seasoned Judges who will not permit the opinion of an
expert to usurp their exclusive domain as fact finders. Rules disallowing an expert
to provide opinions and inferences on the ultimate issue are ordinarily directed at
protecting against lay jurors from substituting the opinion of the expert for their
independent assessment of the facts. There is no such danger here.
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In relation to the second issue, the Trial Chamber stated that there was no danger of
a deprivation of the right to know the expert’s sources, as the defence teams had
ample opportunity to ask questions relating to the sources during cross-
examination.
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As for the third issue, the Trial Chamber argued:
…[c]ontrary to the submissions of the defence, there is no requirement that the
opinion of the expert be essential or strictly necessary or that areas of her knowledge
lie beyond the understanding of the triers of fact as a predicate for its admissibility.
All that is required is that the expert opinion be helpful to assist the Chamber in
understanding the evidence or to assess facts at issue in this case.
149
Thus, one may conclude that, in comparison with the rules of common law on expert
evidence, expert reports, particularly at the ICTR, are being accepted far too lightly.
11.9 EXCLUSION OF IMPROPERLY OBTAINED EVIDENCE
A rule excluding improperly obtained evidence exists in practically all systems, civil
and common law systems alike. Civil law systems tend to focus on procedural
matters, which means that evidence will be excluded if obtained in violation of
procedural fairness irrespective of the relevance of the evidence. Common law
systems focus more on issues of reliability: if the prejudicial effect exceeds probative
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