168
F R E D E R I C K E T A L .
existing plans. To illustrate, consider a person with an existing consumption plan
(
c
t
, . . . ,
c
T
) who is offered an intertemporal-choice prospect
X
, which might be
something like an option to give up $5,000 today to receive $10,000 in five years.
Integration means that prospect
X
is not evaluated in isolation, but in light of how
it changes the person’s aggregate consumption in all future periods. Thus, to eval-
uate the prospect
X
, the person must choose what his or her new consumption
path (
c
t
9
, . . . ,
c
T
9
) would be if he or she were to accept prospect
X
, and should ac-
cept the prospect if
U
t
(
c
t
9
, . . . ,
c
T
9
)
.
U
t
(
c
t
, . . . ,
c
T
).
An alternative way to understand integration is to recognize that intertemporal
prospects alter a person’s budget set. If the person’s initial endowment is
E
0
, then
accepting prospect
X
would change his or her endowment to
E
0
<
X
. Letting
B
(
E
)
denote the person’s budget set given endowment
E
—that is, the set of consump-
tion streams that are feasible given endowment
E
—the DU model says that the
person should accept prospect
X
if:
While integration seems normatively compelling, it may be too difficult actu-
ally to do. A person may not have well-formed plans about future consumption
streams, or be unable (or unwilling) to recompute the new optimal plan every
time he or she makes an intertemporal choice. Some of the evidence we will
review supports the plausible presumption that people evaluate the results of
intertemporal choices independently of any expectations they have regarding con-
sumption in future time periods.
Utility Independence
The DU model explicitly assumes that the overall value—or “global utility”—of
a sequence of outcomes is equal to the (discounted) sum of the utilities in each
period. Hence, the distribution of
utility
across time makes no difference beyond
that dictated by discounting, which (assuming positive time preference) penalizes
utility that is experienced later. The assumption of utility independence has rarely
been discussed or challenged, but its implications are far from innocuous. It rules
out any kind of preference for patterns of utility over time—for example, a pref-
erence for a flat utility profile over a roller-coaster utility profile with the same
discounted utility.
4
max
( )
max
( ).
( , . . . ,
)
(
)
( , . . . ,
)
(
)
c
c
B E
X
t
T
t
c
c
B E
t
T
t
t
T
t
T
u c
u c
∈
∪
=
−
∈
=
−
+
>
+
∑
∑
0
0
1
1
1
1
ρ
ρ
τ
τ
τ
τ
τ
τ
4
“Utility independence” has meaning only if one literally interprets
u
(
c
t
1
k
) as well-being experi-
enced in period
t
1
k
. We believe that this is, in fact, the common interpretation. For a model that
relaxes the assumption of utility independence see Hermalin and Isen (2000), who consider a model
in which well-being in period
t
depends on well-being in period
t
2
1—that is, they assume
u
t
5
u
(
c
t
,
u
t
2
1
). See also Kahneman, Wakker, and Sarin (1997), who propose a set of axioms that would
justify an assumption of additive separability in instantaneous utility.
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