Microsoft Word juntunen väitös docx

3.1.2. Life-cycle analysis of a product 
Life-cycle analysis (LCA) is a technical method for evaluating the environmental burden of a 
product, process or activity by quantifying the net-flows of different chemicals, materials and 
energy (see, e.g., Blackburn and Payne, 2004; Vervaeke, 2012). The assessment of resource 
use, emissions and the related health impacts creates possibilities for environmental 
improvements on a product’s life-cycle (Anastas & Lankey, 2000). From a chemistry 
perspective, LCA is a uniting approach: it combines the systems thinking approach of circular 
economics (Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2012; Hogan, 2002), green or sustainable chemistry 
(Anastas & Lankey, 2000; Böschen et al., 2003; Poliakoff et al., 2002) and engineering 
(Eissen, 2012) – all of which relate to the aspects of science ethics and moral awareness 
(Burmeister & Eilks, 2012; Vilches & Gil-Pérez, 2013; Zeidler et al., 2005).
Early LCA on cumulative energy requirements was conducted in the 1960s and early 1970s 
for certain industrial products such as steel, pulp and paper, and for the petroleum refining 
process (Bousted & Hancock, 1979). After the oil crisis of the 1970s faded, these energy 
analyses were conducted less frequently. But during the 1990s, evidence of different 
environmental crises began to emerge. Based on several meetings of researchers in 1991, the 
Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC) published a framework for 
life-cycle assessment (Nair, 1998; US Congress Office… 1992). This framework is illustrated 
in Figure 3. Since then, LCA has evolved to be more holistic as the importance of 
environmental pollution prevention has gained public attention.
The demand for more 
information about chemicals that are present in people’s communities has increased. In the 
chemical industry, quantitative LCA supplements the set of environmental management tools 
already in existence together with the 12 qualitative principles of green chemistry (see Section 
3.1.1. and Anastas & Warner, 1998). 

---

13
Today, moving towards a more circular economy is essential in delivering on the worldwide 
resource efficiency agendas for smart, sustainable and inclusive growth. Circular economy is 
a generic term for an industrial ecology, which is by design or intention restorative and in 
which materials flows are of two types. The flows are either biological nutrients, which are 
designed to re-enter the biosphere safely, or technical nutrients, which are designed to 
circulate at high quality without entering the biosphere. Circular economics draws from a 
number of more specific approaches including cradle to cradle, biomimicry, industrial 
ecology, ‘waste is food’ and ‘blue economy’. (Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2012) The data 
and analysis following an LCA study can be used to identify ‘hot spots’ and focus efforts 
when building the circular economy and when looking at resource efficiency at large. 
Understanding the circular economics and the life-cycle of a product requires chemistry 
knowledge (Anastas & Lankey, 2000; Blackburn & Payne, 2004). As illustrated in Figure 3., 
LCA includes designing, extracting and processing raw-materials, as well as manufacturing, 
packaging, transportation, distribution, use/re-use/maintenance, recycling and final disposal 
(Johanson, 2010). The inputs constitute of energy, raw-materials and products. The outputs 
include waste management – solid, liquid or gasified substances released into the air, water or 
ground. The outputs may also be immaterial pollution, such as noise or odour problems. 
Unrecyclable products can be considered to be output waste as well. Knowledge of green 
design (Hendrickson & McMichael, 1992), green chemistry (see Section 3.1.) and engineering 
sciences (Nair, 1998) is required in different stages of a product’s life-cycle.