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Inventory analysis 
Impact assessment
Interpretation 
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Figure 4.
The four phases of LCA include definition of the goal and scope, inventory 
analysis, impact assessment and interpretation (Askham, 2011) 
The methods of LCA are in continuous and rapid development. This development is needed to 
recognise key indicators, monitor changes and create simpler reporting practices. Some of the 
easier approaches, including energy assessment, carbon footprint and ecological footprint, can 
already be included in LCA. But some others, such as water footprint and Material Input Per 
Service Unit (MIPS), still lack certain allocation and limitation practices suitable for 
proceeding from early assessment to complete LCA. (Mattila & Antikainen, 2010) As the 
phases of LCA involve similar system definitions and balances, the procedure can be 
considered as a material or substance flow analysis. When scaling up LCA studies, the 
substance flow studies covering a single material are targeted. (Brunner & Ma, 2009) 
System boundaries limit which unit processes should be included in any given study and in 
what level of detail (Antikainen, 2010). The challenge is to find up-to-date, standardised data 
and meet the ambitious goals. LCA is normally conducted on an average process – not on a 
worst-case scenario (Blackburn & Payne, 2004). Uncertainties or errors with the variable, 
scenario or model cause common validity problems (Finnveden et al., 2009). Other system 
boundaries in LCA include the selection of impact categories, category indicators and 
characterisation models. These categories can include different environmental impacts, such 
as global warming potential, ozone depletion potential and acidification potential, as well as 
potential toxic effects on humans and the environment. (Askham, 2011; Koskela et al., 2010)

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