LWT 156 (2022) 113049
4
interaction between aroma and organic acids (
Li et al., 2021
).
Table 2
shows that quinic acid and lactic acid were the most abundant organic
acids in low-alcohol kiwi wine. The highest lactic acid content of COF
low-alcohol kiwi wine was 10.99 mg/mL, and the highest content of
quinic acid in WSF low-alcohol kiwi wine was 9.04 mg/mL. Only lactic
acid was not detected in kiwi juice, so lactic acid was produced in the
fermentation process, consistent with a prior report (
Wei, Zhang, Wang,
et al., 2020b
). In addition, a high concentration of
lactic acid has a
positive effect on the taste perception of wine (
Wei, Zhang, Wang, et al.,
2020b
). Quinic acid, a key precursor of aromatic rings, is produced by
the mangrove ester pathway. Interestingly, fermentation method did not
significantly alter the contents of oxalic acid, tartaric acid, or shikimic
acid. After fermentation, the contents of citric acid and succinic acid
decreased to varying degrees. Citric acid is an important intermediate of
the Krebs cycle. The decreased citric acid content may be due to the
catabolism of yeast cells (
Ye et al., 2014b
). (
Wei et al., 2019
) reported
that succinic acid has bitterness and saltiness, and the decreased succinic
acid content after fermentation may have a positive impact on wine
taste. The change in the tartaric acid content may be related to the
change in pH (
Xu et al., 2019
). The tartaric acid content of our
low-alcohol kiwi wine was 16.7
–
20.3%, which was comparable with
previous results (
Loira et al., 2015
). By contrast, the lactic acid content
was significantly higher than that of wine.
3.2.3. Monomer phenols
The quality index (color, taste, and mouthfeel) of wine is affected by
phenols. Therefore, phenolic compounds are used in wine quality and
authenticity evaluation (
Merkyte, Longo, Windisch,
&
Boselli, 2020
).
Table 3
shows that catechins and epicatechin were the most abundant
flavan-3-ols in low-alcohol kiwi wine. Flavan-3-ols in fruit wines protect
against oxidative stress and influence the
activity of antioxidant en-
zymes (U.
Cakar et al., 2021
). Ellagic acid and quercetin were the most
abundant flavonols in low-alcohol kiwi wine. Protocatechuic acid was
the most abundant hydroxycinnamic acid in low-alcohol kiwi wine. The
contents of catechin, ellagic acid, and quercetin in COF low-alcohol kiwi
wine were 34.68, 21.72, and 36.94
μ
g/mL, respectively. The contents of
catechin and protocatechuic acid in WSF low-alcohol kiwi wine were the
highest, at 9.05 and 36.84
μ
g/mL. The increased protocatechuic acid
content of WSF and COF low-alcohol kiwi wines may be a result of
metabolism of catechins to protocatechuic acid (
Ye et al., 2014b
). The
increased vanillic acid content of WSF low-alcohol kiwi wine may be
because of transformation of ferulic acid (the precursor of several aro-
matic compounds) into vanillic acid (
Abdelkafi, Sayadi, Gam, Casalot,
&
Labat, 2006
). The decreased catechin content of SWF low-alcohol kiwi
wine may be a result of oxidation and multiple polymerizations. The
contents of protocatechuic acid, catechin, and quercetin were higher
than in our previous study (
Huang et al., 2021
), possibly because of the
action of Wa4#.
3.2.4. Water-soluble vitamins
Vitamins are essential micronutrients; each "vitamin" refers to a se-
ries of vitamin derivatives that show biological activities related to a
certain vitamin. Although vitamin intake is low, a lack of certain vita-
mins can lead to health problems (
Gliszczynska-Swiglo
&
Rybicka,
2015
). In addition, water-soluble vitamins act as coenzymes (
Gentili
et al., 2008
), participate in catalysis, and are components of coenzymes,
which are responsible for the transfer of hydrogen, electrons, or groups.
In addition to its high vitamin C content, kiwifruit is also a good source
of B vitamins (
Latocha, 2017
).
Supplementary Table 1
shows that the
vitamin C contents of COF and SWF low-alcohol kiwi wines decreased by
0.61 and 0.46 mg/mL, respectively.
The vitamin C content was
approximately 50% lower in the low-alcohol kiwi wine than in the kiwi
juice; the reduced vitamin C content in kiwi wine may have been due to
enzymatic oxidation (
Lodi, 1943
). The contents of vitamins B
5
and B
6
were 22.89
–
52.22 mg/mL, respectively, consistent with a prior report
(
Latocha, 2017
). The addition of sulfites may cause a decrease in the
levels of B vitamins, especially vitamin B
1
(
Evers et al., 2021
). Therefore,
fermentation reduces the water-soluble vitamin content to varying de-
grees. The vitamin B content decreased slightly, and the vitamin C
content decreased significantly (
p
<
0.05).
3.3. VOCs
3.3.1. Identification of VOCs
The volatile aroma of kiwi juice and COF, WSF, and SWF low-alcohol
kiwi wines was analyzed. Fifty-four
volatile aromas were detected,
including 4 aldehydes, 13 higher alcohols, 7 acids, 3 ketones, and 27
esters (
Supplementary Table 2
).
Acetaldehyde was the major aldehyde in low-alcohol kiwi wine; its
content ranged from 2.46 to 84.24
μ
g/mL. Only hexanal and
trans
-2-
hexenal were detected in unfermented juice. The reduction of aldehydes
after fermentation may be oxidized from microbial activities to alcohol
or acid (
Huang et al., 2021
). Hexanal produces green, fat, and grass
flavors (
Jaros, Thamke, Raddatz,
&
Rohm, 2009
;
Qin, Petersen,
&
Bre-
die, 2018
) Decanal has no significant effect on wine.
Higher alcohols are produced by yeast metabolism via the Ehrlich
pathway in the presence of amino acids or sugars (
Hazelwood, Daran,
van Maris, Pronk,
&
Dickinson, 2008a
) The phenylethanol, isoamyl
alcohol, and hexanol contents ranged from 140.92 to 536.57
μ
g/mL.
Phenylethanol has a pleasant fragrance of flowers, roses, and honey.
Isoamyl alcohol is considered to have an aroma of fruit and apple brandy
and is associated with malt, wine, and onion flavors. During fermenta-
tion, yeast transforms valine, leucine, and phenylalanine via the Ehrlich
pathway to isobutanol,
isoamyl alcohol, and phenylethanol (
Hazel-
wood, Daran, van Maris, Pronk,
&
Dickinson, 2008b
;
Hong et al., 2021
).
The terpenoid citronellol has an aroma of rose and citrus flowers.
Acids are important volatile components of wine complexity and
fruit aroma balance (
Qin et al., 2018
). The 3-methyl-4-oxopentanoic
acid and acetic acid contents of kiwi wine were highest at 1734.43
and 2102.87
μ
g/mL, respectively. Acetic acid is the characteristic flavor
compound in fermented food, generating a sharp, pungent, and vinegar
flavor. It is produced by the acetate kinase pathway of the phospho-
gluconate pathway and citric acid metabolism (
Peng et al., 2021
). Acid
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