short
sales:
that is, they borrow stock from brokers and then sell it in the market,
with the hope that they earn a profit by buying the stock back again ( cover-
ing the short ) after it has fallen in price. However, work by psychologists sug-
gests that people are subject to loss aversion: that is, they are more unhappy
when they suffer losses than they are happy from making gains. Short sales can
result in losses far in excess of an investor s initial investment if the stock price
climbs sharply above the price at which the short sale is made (and losses have
the possibility of being unlimited if the stock price climbs to astronomical
heights).
Loss aversion can thus explain an important phenomenon: very little short sell-
ing actually takes place. Short selling may also be constrained by rules restricting
it because it seems unsavoury for someone to make money from another person s
misfortune. That there is so little short selling can explain why stock prices some-
times get overvalued. Not enough short selling can take place by smart money to
drive stock prices back down to their fundamental value.
Psychologists have also found that people tend to be overconfident in their
own judgements. As a result, investors tend to believe that they are smarter than
other investors. Because investors are willing to assume that the market typically
doesn t get it right, they trade on their beliefs and not pure facts. This theory can
explain why securities markets have such a large trading volume, something that
the efficient market hypothesis does not predict.
Overconfidence and social contagion (fads) provide an explanation for stock
market bubbles. When stock prices go up, investors attribute their profits to their
intelligence and talk up the stock market. This word-of-mouth enthusiasm and the
media then can produce an environment in which even more investors think stock
prices will rise in the future. The result is a positive feedback loop in which prices
continue to rise, producing a speculative bubble, which finally crashes when
prices get too far out of line with fundamentals.
8
The field of behavioural finance is a young one, but it holds out hope that we
might be able to explain some features of securities markets behaviour that are
not well explained by the efficient market hypothesis.
8
See Robert J. Shiller,
Irrational Exuberance
(Broadway Books: New York, 2001).
1. Stocks are valued as the present value of future div-
idends. Unfortunately, we do not know very pre-
cisely what these dividends will be. This uncertainty
introduces a great deal of error to the valuation
process. The Gordon growth model is a simplified
method of computing stock value that depends on
the assumption that the dividends are growing at a
constant rate forever. Given our uncertainty regard-
ing future dividends, this assumption is often the
best we can do.
2. The interaction among traders in the market is what
actually sets prices on a day-to-day basis. The trader
that values the security the most (either because of less
uncertainty about the cash flows or because of greater
estimated cash flows) will be willing to pay the most.
As new information is released, investors will revise
their estimates of the true value of the security and will
either buy or sell it depending upon how the market
price compares to their estimated valuation. Because
small changes in estimated growth rates or required
return result in large changes in price, it is not surpris-
ing that the markets are often volatile.
3. The efficient market hypothesis states that current
security prices will fully reflect all available informa-
tion, because in an efficient market, all unexploited
profit opportunities are eliminated. The elimination
of unexploited profit opportunities, necessary for a
financial market to be efficient, does not require that
all market participants be well informed.
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