fixed-ratio schedule
gives reinforcement after a fixed number of behaviors, regard-
less of the time that elapses between behaviors. This results in an even higher level of
effort. For example, when Sears is recruiting new credit-card customers, salespersons
get a small bonus for every fifth application returned from their department. Under
this arrangement, motivation will be high because each application gets the person closer
to the next bonus. The
variable-ratio schedule
, the most powerful schedule in terms of
maintaining desired behaviors, varies the number of behaviors needed for each reinforce-
ment. A supervisor who praises an employee for her second order, the seventh order
after that, the ninth after that, then the fifth, and then the third is using a variable-ratio
Your reinforcement decision will probably have lit-
tle or nothing to do with next year’s outcome in any
of your store’s departments. And you’ve probably
been unfair to your produce manager. Kahneman
isn’t inclined to be overly critical of your mistaken
belief that you’ve made a logical, fair, and effective
decision: “It’s very difficult for people to detect their
own errors,” he admits. “You’re too busy making a
mistake to detect it at the same time.” He does,
however, reserve the right to be pessimistic: “The
failure to recognize the import of regression,” he
warns,
can have pernicious consequences…. We nor-
mally reinforce others when their behavior is
good and punish them when their behavior is
bad. By regression alone [however], they are
most likely to improve after being punished and
most likely to deteriorate after being rewarded.
Consequently, we are exposed to a lifetime sched-
ule in which we are most often rewarded for pun-
ishing others and punished for rewarding [them].
References:
Bryan Burke, “Fighter Pilots and Firing
Coaches,” Advanced NFL Stats, www.advancedfootball
analytics.com, accessed on December 7, 2013; David Hall,
“Daniel Kahneman Interview,” New Zealand Listener, www
.listener.co.nz, accessed on December 7, 2013; Steve
Miller, “We’re Not Very Good Statisticians,” Information
Management, www.information-management.com, acc-
essed on December 7, 2013; Galen Strawson, “Thinking,
Fast and Slow by Daniel Kahneman—Review,” The
Guardian, www.guardian.co.uk, accessed on December 7,
2013; and Judgment under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases,
ed. Daniel Kahneman, Paul Slovic, and Amos Tversky
(Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1982), http://
books.google.com, accessed on December 7, 2013.
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