Jewish History Prior to Islam
Jewish life in Egypt in antiquity has been researched, among others, by
Muṣṭafa Kamal ῾ Abd al-῾Aalim and al-Khashab Abd al-Muḥsin.
26
Both
studied the history of the Elephantine community that settled in Egypt
240 · Rachel Maissy-Noy
during the Persian period, as well as the history of the Leontopolis com-
munity that settled there during the period of Ptolemaic rule about three
hundred years later. ῾Abd al ῾Aalim and Abd al-Muḥsin describes the
atmosphere of tolerance created by Egyptian rulers, whether under a
Persian, Hellenist, or Roman regime, who granted the Jews economic,
cultural, and religious freedom to integrate into most of the economic,
military, and administrative branches of the government. Their histories
mention the names of Jewish personalities who rose to high positions
under Ptolemaic rule, such as Dositheus, son of Dromilus, and Tiberius
Julius Alexander, nephew of Philo of Alexandria, who even became pre-
fect of Egypt. But most of all, these two historians emphasize Onias IV,
the head of the Jewish community during the Hellenistic period, who
was named a county governor and who built for his community a small
temple in Leontopolis modeled on the temple in Jerusalem.
Other researchers who describe Jewish history in antiquity deal with
the three main areas of Jewish concentration: Egypt, Mesopotamia, and
the Arabian Peninsula. They, too, describe the idyllic way of life of the
Jews in their environments and indicate that the rulers were not hostile
toward them. In order to demonstrate this claim, they present a list of
Jewish personalities of high administrative and financial rank who had
served as counselors in the palaces of the rulers.
27
Among other promi-
nent examples of Jewish success, they mention Joseph’s high position in
the court of Pharaoh and Onias in the court of Cleopatra. Other names
are those of Pekah and Nedebiah in Sennacherib’s court, but above all the
story of Esther and Mordechai in the court of Xerxes, king of Persia.
Moreover, the story of the aforementioned independent Jewish king-
doms, Ḥidyab, Ḥimyar, and Khazaria, occupies an important place in the
Egyptian narrative and serves as a typical example of the religious and
political influence of the Jews in the antiquity and early Middle Ages.
28
Apart from these political achievements, monumental spiritual suc-
cesses are also mentioned, such as the Bible translation into Greek in the
third century bc as proof of the cultural integration of the Jews in the
Hellenic world.
29
Also extensively mentioned is the story of the prosper-
ous Babylonian talmudic schools (yeshivas) of Sura, Pumbeditha, and
Neharde῾a as proof of the tolerant atmosphere that enabled the Jews to
develop their spiritual and creative lives.
30
Part of this list of achieve-
ments includes the editing and distribution of the Babylonian and Jerusa-
Issues of Jewish History as Reflected in Modern Egyptian Historiography · 241
lem Talmuds and their renown in the Jewish world—an accomplishment
described as the height of Jewish achievement of all times.
31
Jewish History in the Middle Ages
Egyptian historiographers, in writing about the history of the Jews in the
Middle Ages, made intense efforts to refute the claim of Jewish suffering.
This was expressed by a tendency to absolve the Arabs and Islam of the
charge of tyranny attributed to them in Western and Jewish historiogra-
phy. Early research that dealt with the Egyptian Jews of that period was
conducted at Zaqaziq University in the 1980s by Qasem ῾Abdu Qasem.
The research examines the period between the Arab conquest of Egypt up
to the arrival of the Ottomans. About a decade later, the publishing house
Al-Hay᾿a al-Misriyya al-῾Aama lilkitab started publishing a research se-
ries based on doctoral theses, each of which dealt with the situation of
the Jews in Egypt in any one of the periods from the Arab conquest up
to the end of the Ottoman period. These works presented a detailed pic-
ture of social, economic, and religious Jewish life in Egypt. Among them
was also the thesis of Zubayda ῾Aṭa, who also dealt with the period re-
searched by Qasem ῾Abdu; the thesis of Nariman ῾Abd al-Karim Aḥmad,
who concentrated on the beginning of the Islamic period; that of Faṭima
al-῾Amer, who dealt with the period from the Arab conquest to the end
of the Fatimid period; and Maḥasen Muḥammad al-Waqqad, who wrote
about the Mamluks based on archival documents.
32
The common interest of these works is the need to respond to claims
made in Jewish research about the social and religious discrimination of
Jews imposed by the ῾Umar Convention. The above-mentioned research-
ers used similar means and methods to refute these claims. The first part
of each research presents the tolerant approach of the Quran and the
Ḥadith toward the protected charges, reviewing the relevant important
Shari῾a approach. The second part of the research presents a number of
capitulation contracts that determined the relations between the Muslims
and the conquered nations. By analyzing the clauses of these contracts,
the researchers wish to demonstrate that the spirit of tolerance described
in the first part was in fact at the very core of Islam. In this context the
῾
Umar Convention is presented as one of the capitulation contracts that
had no intention of limiting or humiliating their protected charges. On
the contrary, its entire purpose was to allow them to live their lives safely
242 · Rachel Maissy-Noy
by paying a poll tax. The last part of the research contains examples from
Arab and Jewish sources, proving that the Jews enjoyed equal rights and
opportunities by mentioning names of Jewish personalities who reached
senior positions in the rulers’ courts.
It was also pointed out in these studies that the Jewish situation in
the Middle Ages cannot be described as monolithic. The caliphs of the
῾
Umayyad dynasty are generally described as religiously moderate and
tolerant toward the Jews, as were the caliphs of the Abbasid dynasty. The
latter are generally presented as enlightened rulers who enabled the Jews
to live in relative peace compared to that which had prevailed earlier
in the Christian world. The Fatimid period, too, except for the years of
al-Ḥakem Bi᾿amr Alla’s reign, is described as a positive period for the
Jews, which the researchers call “the golden age of Egyptian Jewry.” This
definition is based on many testimonies both in Jewish and Arab sources
that point out the employment of many Jews in senior government posts
at a relatively higher rate than their numbers in the general population.
33
On the other hand, the Egyptian historiographers are not unanimous
about the situation of the Jews under the reign of the Mamluks and the
Ottomans. The reason for that is probably the different approach of the
researchers from the various streams of thought about the legitimacy of
the rule of these dynasties. Islamist historians, for instance, like Saber
Ṭu῾ayma or ῾Abd al-῾Aziz al-Murshidi, who consider the Ottoman Em-
pire to be one link in the glorious line of Islamic caliphates, find no fault
with the attitude of the Ottoman rulers toward the Jews. They describe
the rulers’ attitude generally as fair, stemming from the tolerance of Is-
lam. Historians from the nationalist streams, on the other hand, who con-
sider the Ottomans foreign invaders of the Arab world, indicate that the
main motive for the behavior of the Mamluks and Ottomans toward their
subjects was the levied taxes. Qasem ῾Abdu, for example, explains the
tyranny toward the Jews, whenever it existed, by the intention to please
the religious sages and the people who were not pleased with the high
rank of the Jews.
34
However, apart from the differences of opinions among the historians
about the attitude of the Mamluks and Ottomans toward the Jews, the re-
searchers were unanimous about the tolerance of the Muslims toward the
conquered nations. It was usually mentioned that, since the beginning
of Islam, basic principles were set down according to which Islam was
to be propagated by peaceful and tolerant ways. These principles had
Issues of Jewish History as Reflected in Modern Egyptian Historiography · 243
been expressed in every message sent by Muḥammad to the leaders of
the countries he was going to fight against, as well as in the peace agree-
ments signed with them after they surrendered. As proof of this, one
verse of the Quran was mentioned at the head of every message sent by
Muḥammad to his commanders on the front: “Prepare yourselves against
your enemy as much military in cavalry as you can in order to scare them
and deter others . . . but when they tend to peace, do so too and put your
trust in Allah.”
35
Further proof for the tolerance of Islam in its early period is the taxa-
tion policy. The common policy was that the taxes were fair and levied in
a friendly manner, taking into consideration what the protected charges
could afford. One of the examples for that was the verse quoted from the
Quran that forbids mistreating taxpayers: “Allah does not require from a
person something he cannot afford.”
36
In addition, the researchers men-
tioned the pious sage Abu Joseph, who was employed as a judge [qadi]
in the court of Harun al-Rashid and who advised the caliph to treat the
People of the Book with compassion according to the spirit of the Quran
and the Ḥadith. To prove this, Nariman Abd al-Qarim quoted from his
book the words attributed to the Prophet: “So said the Prophet to whom
we pray and wish peace: ‘Anyone who discriminates against an ally or
forces upon him to pay more than he can afford or humiliates him or
takes anything from him not out of his own free will, shall have to stand
before me on the day of judgment and explain his doings.’“
37
Yet another proof of the tolerant atmosphere is the freedom granted
to the Jews regarding residence and worship. All this is based on the de-
scriptions of Arab chroniclers such as al-Maqrizi and Qalqashandi, who
documented in their books the Jewish neighborhoods in Fustat and Cairo
with their houses of prayer and bathhouses. But what was emphasized,
above all, was the freedom of employment enjoyed by the Jews. Proof
of this is the list of court physicians, the most important of whom was
Maimonides, who served as a doctor in the court of Saladin, and Abu
Sa῾d Yitzhak al-Israeli, the physician of ῾Ubayd Allah. Other figures men-
tioned were those responsible for the treasury and the counselors who
served in the courts of the rulers, like Yaacov Ibn Qlas in the court of Qa-
fur al-Ahshidi, Abu Sa῾d al-Tastari, who was the head of the office of the
wife of the Fatimid caliph al-Muntasir, and also Hasdai ibn Shaprut, Ibn
Nagrila, and Shmuel Ha-Nagid, who served in high-ranking positions in
the courts of the Arab rulers in Spain.
244 · Rachel Maissy-Noy
The claim of a free social and economic atmosphere is reinforced by
what the researchers had discovered in sale and purchase contracts in
the Cairo Geniza as well as in the documents of Santa Catherina.
38
These
documents prove that the Jews worked in a variety of fields and were not
excluded from any occupation except the military. Furthermore, it was
emphasized that they owned a great deal of private and public property
and that many of them were merchants who entered into business part-
nerships with Muslim merchants and sometimes, as in the case of Nissim
Nahari and Ibn ῾Ukal, even with the ruler himself.
39
According to Qasem
῾
Abdu, all these examples prove that the Jews were an integral part of
Egyptian society and were not considered a separate national entity. He
therefore writes:
After all these examples, I think it is necessary to say that the society
offered the Jews maximum opportunities to use their skills for its
service. They were not considered a foreign community or a boycot-
ted one. They were treated as part of the Egyptian public and the
only difference was their religion.
40
Hitherto we have presented the claims of the researchers with regard to
the tolerant atmosphere that prevailed during the Middle Ages. It seems
that it will be quite easy to proceed from here to refuting the claim of
Jewish suffering. In fact, what is clear to the reader is that, compared
with the extensive description given by the researchers of the economic
and administrative achievements of the Jews in the Middle Ages, they
related only marginally to the hostility expressed toward the Jews. It is
true that the ῾Umar regulations about the special dress code of the Jews
are mentioned, pointing out the rulers who strictly enforced them. But
again and again it is emphasized that most rulers tended to ignore these
regulations and implemented them only in periods where the behavior of
the Jews was “irregular,” as they call it. In cases, for instance, where Qa-
sem ῾Abdu mentions the hostility of the environment toward the Jews, he
shows understanding and compassion with the agitation of the Muslims,
since, according to him, this agitation was inflamed by the ostentatious
behavior of the Jews who were deviating from the religious command-
ments of the ῾Umar Convention. In general, in cases where he admits the
existence of an aggressive act against the Jews, he describes it as an excep-
tion that does not prove the rule. One of the typical expressions therefore
Issues of Jewish History as Reflected in Modern Egyptian Historiography · 245
is the following: “These events always had a pattern of single cases with
no element of perseverance or consistency. They cannot refute the notion
that the social relations between the Muslim Egyptians and the Jews and
Christians were to a large extent natural and in most cases good.”
41
As to the existence of decrees by the rulers about establishing a dress
code and limiting the freedom of employment, he claims that they were
inconsistently implemented and that the restrictions were gradually re-
moved and even disappeared entirely during some periods. To prove it,
he quotes the Jewish researcher Shlomo Goitien, who stated that among
the Geniza documents there were no signs of the special clothing or other
regulations relating to the period of al-Ḥakem bi᾿Amr Allah.
42
Moreover,
he writes that the fact that the researchers discovered extensive documen-
tation of the Sultans’ decrees about the restrictions of the Jews regarding
administrative positions and clothing (mainly during the Mamluk pe-
riod) proves that the protected charges did not always abide by these
restrictions and therefore they had to be enforced again and again by new
decrees, because “if the regulations were implemented, there would have
been no need for these decrees.”
43
At this point it should be mentioned that even in cases where Qa-
sem discovers that the Jews were not to blame for the hostility toward
them, he blames not the Arab population but their Mamluk and Ottoman
rulers, whom he considers representatives of a foreign power. From his
point of view, ignoring the spirit of the ῾Umar decrees by the rulers led
to the agitation of the crowd, who were generally more religious than the
rulers and who considered ignoring the ῾Umar regulations as contempt
for religious decrees.
Jewish History in Modern Times
Among the researchers who deal with the history of the Jews in mod-
ern times, the important ones are Aḥmad Shalabi, Saber Abd el Rahman
Ṭu῾ayma, and Ḥasan Ẓaẓ. They discuss the principles of the Jewish faith
as they had learned it from the Bible and the Mishna, the Talmud, and the
Aggadah. The main aim of these works is to trace the relations of modern
Jews with their environment and point out the ideas of the chosen people
and the Promised Land as the source of the problem in these relations.
Research of social and economic importance can be found in the works
246 · Rachel Maissy-Noy
of ῾Ali Shalash, ῾Arfa ῾Abdu ῾Ali, Siham Naṣṣar, and Maḥmud Sayyed
῾
Abd al Ẓahir, who naturally concentrate on the Zionist activity of the
Egyptian Jews.
Like the research about antiquity and the Middle Ages, most of these
researchers show a common interest in three main issues. First: rejecting
the existence of a Jewish problem in the Arab countries, especially in
Egypt. Second: the ingratitude of the Jews toward the Arab countries that
hosted them generously and the part they played in facilitating Western
colonialism. Third: how the Zionist Movement ruined the good relation-
ship between Arabs and Jews and caused the Jews from the Arab coun-
tries to take a political misstep. Of these three we shall focus on the first
issue that is related to our topic.
The above-mentioned researchers are unanimous in claiming that the
integration of the Jews in commerce, industry, entertainment, press, and
politics was due to tolerant factors such as the royal courts, the nation-
alist movement, and the Egyptian man in the street. In order to dem-
onstrate this, Shalash and ῾Abdu ῾Ali ῾Arafa present, for instance, ten
pages with names of Jewish lawyers, doctors, and entrepreneurs who
worked in Egypt during the second half of the twentieth century.
44
In
this context the researchers point out that even in 1937, when Egypt was
influenced by anti-Jewish Nazi propaganda, 103 Egyptian companies
out of 308 were registered under Jewish ownership.
45
In addition, they
mention Jewish personalities who occupied important positions in the
parliaments of the Arab countries. The names mentioned were, for in-
stance, Moshe and René Qattawi, Rabbi Ḥaim Naḥum Efendi, and Joseph
Pichotto. This list of achievements is supplemented by the Jewish insti-
tutions that Egyptian rulers allowed the Jewish community to establish
and operate, such as synagogues, schools, hospitals, old age homes, and
various charity organizations.
46
The preoccupation with the claim of Jewish suffering in Arab coun-
tries that is characteristic of Egyptian historiography of the Middle Ages
becomes even more intense concerning the history of the Jews in modern
times. This is due to the emphasis found in the Zionist historiography of
Jewish suffering and persecution and the necessity for a national Jew-
ish movement. The polemics over this claim is especially prominent in
the research of ῾Abdu ῾Ali ῾Arafa, Siham Naṣṣar, and ῾Ali Shalash, who
declare that their aim is to expose the reader to the fact that the situa-
tion of the Jews in Egypt was comfortable to such an extent that it did
Issues of Jewish History as Reflected in Modern Egyptian Historiography · 247
not justify their joining the Zionist movement. Hereafter, we will deal
with ῾Ali Shalash’s stand in his book regarding the Freemasons in Egypt,
which seems to represent the approach of the others on this matter.
In the chapter “There Is No Jewish Problem in Egypt,” which he dedi-
cates to refuting the claim of the suffering of the Jews, Shalash describes
the acceptance of the Jews as equals by most classes of Egyptian society.
His point of view was that, in principle, a minority can prosper in any
country only as long as it is supported by the official policy of the rul-
ers and the public, who grant it an atmosphere of freedom. According
to him, this was the situation in Egypt, and the fact that the number of
Jews there increased considerably during the nineteenth and twentieth
centuries was the best proof for this. In the introduction to his research,
this tendency was expressed most clearly:
The reader of this research will finally come to the obvious conclu-
sion that the Jews prospered in Egypt in the modern age until 1948
to an extent comparable only to that in Germany during the period
prior to Hitler and in the United States from the very beginning.
Such prosperity of the Jews did not emanate from special genius
or from hereditary skill, as claimed by their historians, but came
originally from two vital factors: the official non-hostile approach
of the state they lived in and the popular and tolerant stand of its
population.
47
Like Qasem ῾Abdu and Zubayda ῾Aṭa, who emphasize the fact that the
Jews were considered by the Egyptians as part and parcel of Egyptian
society in the Middle Ages, Shalash, too, wishes to prove that the Egyp-
tian rulers and intelligentsia considered the Jews an integral part of the
modern Egyptian nation. This point is connected to the approach that the
Jews are not a people and that they, too, considered themselves an inte-
gral part of the peoples among whom they lived. Shalash finds a decisive
proof for it in the feeling of a common fate shared by some of the Jewish
younger generation regarding the national problems of Egypt and the
cooperation of the Egyptian national leaders with the Jews born in Egypt
in the building of an Egyptian national consciousness. As an example, he
mentions the contacts of al-Afghani and the Jewish journalist Ya῾akov
Ṣanu῾a, united by their hostility toward the British and the policy of
the Hidaui Isma῾il, one of the Turkish viceroys who ruled Egypt. In this
context he mentioned the role of Jewish youth in the establishment of
248 · Rachel Maissy-Noy
Misr al-Fatat, a secret society that was organized in Alexandria during
the reign of ᾿Isma῾il with the main aim of awakening the political con-
sciousness of the Egyptians against the corrupt policy of the Hidaui.
48
Shalash further mentions the relationship between Ya῾akov Ṣanu῾a and
the national leader, Aḥmad ῾Urabi, who both opposed the corruption of
the royal family and called for “Egypt for the Egyptians.”
But the most interesting relationship between the Jews and Egyptians
about the national issue is the encounter of Muṣṭafa Kamal and the Jew-
ish politician Benjamin Ze᾿ev Herzl [prior to the first Zionist Congress]
to discuss the national issue.
49
Another important fact brought up by Shalash as proof of the feel-
ing of a common fate between the Jews and their environment is the
integration of the Jews in the Egyptian parties, especially in the Wafd
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