3.2. Synthesis methods for CZTS
Various synthesis methods adopted and its e
fficiency chart is shown
in the
Table 1 [30]
. E
fficiency of the fabricated CZTS device varies with
the synthesis method adopted. The e
fficiency of the device depends on
factors such as deposition rate, layer thickness and synthesis method
adopted. The
Table 1
illustrates the various methods and respective
e
fficiency achieved. Synthesis method of the CZTS depends on the
substrate used and its limitations in using it on the particular synthesis
methods. Each method uses its unique deposition of the elements by the
order of one after the another or the deposition of all the elements at the
same time.
3.2.1. Electrochemical deposition method
First ever electrodeposition method for the fabrication of the CZTS
based solar was done by Scragg et al.
[38]
by dissolving CuCl SnCl and
ZnCl separately in NaOH and sorbitol and deposited in an order of Cu,
Sn and Zn. Electrochemical deposition is a type of coating method used
to remit the cations in the aqueous solution, organic solution in the
cathode by supplying potential di
fference through external circuit
power. Almost more than 40 years electrochemical deposition process
of semiconducting materials was carried out
[39]
. Bath University es-
tablished the method for laminating and vulcanizing electro-deposition
of Cu/Sn/Zn to acquire the CZTS based thin
film photovoltaic in 2008
with a converting e
fficiency of 0.81%
[40]
. Further photovoltaic power
conversion e
fficiency of 3.14% was achieved through one-step co-de-
posited Cu/Zn/Sn alloy and also annealing of 600 °C for 2 h in the
carrier gas having sulfur powder. Above method had hiccup to detect
the constant sulfur source in the electrodeposition of CZTS based
semiconducting compound
[41]
.
In the following years the e
fficiency of 3.24% was attained with the
annealing for 2 h at 575 °C in an atmosphere of N
2
carrier gas having
Sulfur powder with 10% H
2
[42]
. Ennaoui in Germany synthesized the
CZTS based thin
film photovoltaic the efficiency of 3.39% through one-
step co-deposition technique of Cu/Zn/Sn in the solution having 3 mM
Cu
2+
, 3 mM Zn
2+
and 30 mM Sn
2+
. Few complexing agents were
present with the annealing of 2 h at 550 °C in an atmosphere of Ar
gasoline having 5% H
2
S to synthesize CZTS based thin
films with Cu-
poor etching through washing the Cu
x
S in the KCN solution with 3.49%
density. There after light treatment was done for 10 min, which has
resulted in enhanced photovoltaic performance of 3.59%
[43]
. Later
commercially plating solution was deposited with Cu/Zn/Sn after
which laminated with the annealing for half-hour in N
2
at 350 °C. Again
Cu/Zn/Sn was achieved with the annealing of 12 min at 585 °C in the
N
2
environment having sulfur powder. Finally, CdS and ZnO were de-
posited to get the CZTS based thin
film photovoltaic device. Fabricated
device had an e
fficiency of 7.29%
[44]
. Washio et al.
[45]
adopted a
unique technique to make CZTS based thin
film photovoltaic by using
oxide precursors with an open atmosphere chemical vapor deposition
(CVD) technique. CZTS based thin
film photovoltaic are fabricated by
using soda lime glass (SLG) and Molybdenum(Mo) coated substrates.
Then, the sulfurization of oxide precursor became done to make the
thin
films (Cu–Zn–Sn–O) in N
2
+H
2
S (4.9%) atmosphere at 520
–560 °C
for three hours. The device fabricated with the above technique has
better e
fficiency of 6.03%.
3.2.2. Vacuum deposition method
Vacuum deposition method is similar to physical deposition tech-
nique in which the raw materials are loaded into the vacuum chamber
and heated to high temperature. This high temperature heating makes
the atoms or molecules to escape from the surface. The escaped mole-
cules vaporizes and penetrates into the surface of the substrate. The low
temperature of substrate enables the substances to condenses resulting
into a solid thin
film
[17]
. This method is very simple with better
quality of deposition for fabricating the CZTS based thin
films. Main-
taining the ratio of the elemental chemistry of the deposited materials is
cumbersome which will have a low yield. Vacuum thermal evaporation
is a method used to deposit single quaternary CZTS semiconducting
material with an annealing of 300 degrees for 40 min under N
2
atmo-
sphere after deposition
[46]
. In the year 2003, NaS was delivered into
the chamber to improve the vacuum background with the annealing
temperature in the stainless-steel chamber. Device fabricated with the
above technique had an e
fficiency of 5.43%
[47]
. In the year 1998, ZSW
Company of Germany measured the CZTS based thin
film photovoltaic
with e
fficiency of 2.29% through co-evaporation technique
[48]
. ZSW
works on various types of solar cells such as thin
film solar cells, flexible
solar cells and printed solar cells. The ZSW agency of Germany holds
the record in CIGS based photovoltaic with an e
fficiency of 20.3%
[49]
.
ZSW has achieved di
fferent techniques for various layers deposition in
fabricating the CIGS solar cell. In the device structure, the CIGS layer
functions as the absorber layer of the solar cell.
Weber et al.
[50]
found that the temperature of substrate might be
at a variety of 300
–600 °C. Bottleneck within the annealing temperature
is that, once the substrate temperature reaches above 400 °C the Sn loss
will be higher. Hence it had been a big challenge to maintain the
process. In the year 2010, CZTS based thin
film photovoltaic with an
e
fficiency of 6.79% through co-evaporation was attained. The fabri-
cated device with the above approach has shown a new direction in
fabrication of CZTS based cell with better e
fficiency
[51]
. In the year
2011, another new approach was adopted by employing the Cu, Zn, and
Sn evaporation source with Knudsen type and Veeco S source box in
metallic tantalum at the annealing temperature of 540 °C to
−570 °C
for
five minutes. Film made with 600 nm thickness resulted with an
e
fficiency of 8.4%, which is currently the better CZTS based photo-
voltaic e
fficiency without Se
[23]
.
3.2.3. Electron beam evaporation method
Electron beam evaporation is a type of physical vapor deposition
method which bombard of the target anode by electron beam in a high
vacuum environment and evaporate the material from anode. The
material vaporizes and gets deposited in the surface forming a layer of
thin coating. The method is employed for device fabrication and thin
film coatings in order to use it for various applications. Layer thickness
depends on factors such as the particles size, vacuum pressure and the
deposition time takes. In the year 1996, A research group from National
College of Technology applied the electron beam evaporation and
curing method to fabricate the photovoltaic device of ZnO:Al/CdS/
CZTS/Mo/SLG structure with the open circuit voltage of 400 mV, short
circuit current of 6.0 mA/cm
2
,
fill factor of 0.277, and power conver-
sion e
fficiency of 0.67%. In order to improve the conversion efficiency,
Hironori and Katagiri both are employed Cu, Sn (or SnS
2
), and ZnS as
vapor deposition material by the way of the usage of electron beam
evaporation technique, changing the order of deposition from an eva-
poration to multiple cycles evaporation, using soda lime glass (SLG) and
ZnO: Al instead of ZnO as a window layer.
The proposed method had an eventual expanded e
fficiency of 5.43%
[52]
. Electron beam evaporation technique overcomes defects of the
resistance heating evaporation, in particular it is more suitable for the
manufacturing of high-melting point material and high purity thin
film
material. At present, preparation of the CZTS based thin
film with
electron beam evaporation technique is mostly within the research labs.
Electron beam deposition method has signi
ficant advantages when
compared to other methods such as better surface morphology, good
phase matching, and better optical performance when fabricated as a
thin
film
[17]
. Similar to the CZTS fabrication, electron beam eva-
poration method is used for many other device fabrications. Being the
family of physical vapor deposition there has been many other methods
such as sputtering deposition. Following section is introduces about the
sputtering deposition of CZTS
films.
3.2.4. Magnetron sputtering method
Magnetron sputtering is another method in physical vapor
M. Ravindiran, C. Praveenkumar
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