might have formed micelles with the moisture presented in the FSO
(
Table 1
), which gave them a chance to interact with the pro-oxidant
metals that are usually present in the moisture. Since the DAGs of li-
nolenic acid, which is the major fatty acid in FSO (
Table S2,
Supplementary data
), is highly prone to oxidation than the corre-
sponding triacylglycerols (
Singh & Shah, 1993
), they can initiate FSO
oxidation by interacting with metals ions present in the moisture or at
higher temperatures.
Di
ff
erent antioxidants might have handled the DAGs or other sur-
face active minor components and its oxidized derivatives di
ff
erently
based on their ability to reach the location of lipid oxidation or the
transport of the free radicals towards the antioxidants before their
transformation into lipid hydroperoxides (
Laguerre, Bily, Roller, &
Birtic, 2017
). Ascorbyl palmitate has surface activity (see
Table S3 in
Supplementary data
, ascorbyl palmitate reduced the oil
–
water inter-
facial tension of FSO from 8.90 ± 0.61 to 6.85 ± 0.69 mN/m),
therefore, it may be able to replace some of the DAGs and other surface
active minor components of FSO from the interface. Similar to ascorbyl
palmitate, tannic acid was also able to reduce the interfacial tension of
FSO-water interface (8.90 ± 0.61 to 7.10 ± 0.13 mN/m) and may
have replaced some surface active minor component even though it is a
hydrophilic (water soluble) molecule. This may have reduced the
chances of oxidation of DAGs of FSO. In addition to that, tannic acid
and ascorbyl palmitate have signi
fi
cantly high free radical scavenging
capacity (
Fig. 2
a and c), and therefore, may scavenge the free radicals
of DAGs while they were forming at the interface, and decelerate the
oxidation. Moreover, it is also known that the peroxides formed in the
oil also move towards the oil-water interface and interact with metal
ions to create more free radicals. In fact, we have seen that the inter-
facial tension of FSO-water interface measured at room temperature
after treating the oil at 60 °C for 30 days signi
fi
cantly decreased from
8.16 ± 0.32 to 6.11 ± 0.51 mN/m (see
Fig. S1 in Supplementary
data
), Therefore, the antioxidants present at the interface or close to the
interface can capture the surface active peroxides and prevent further
lipid oxidation. These could be the reason why tannic acid and ascorbyl
palmitate were better able to protect the FSO from oxidation.
On the other hand, TBHQ and alpha tocopherol, which are oil so-
luble, were not able to remove the surface active minor components
from oil-moisture interfaces. From
Table S2 (Supplementary data)
, it
can be seen that the interfacial tension of oil with 200 ppm TBHQ and
alpha tocopherol was 8.90 ± 0.31 and 8.26 ± 0.32 mN/m, respec-
tively, which were not signi
fi
cantly di
ff
erent from pure FSO alone
(p > 0.05). However, they could prevent lipid oxidation by scavenging
the free radicals generated in the bulk oil. Nevertheless, higher con-
centration of the oxidized form of alpha tocopherol after scavenging the
free radicals are reported as pro-oxidant and accelerate the oil oxida-
tion (
Cillard & Cillard, 1980; Huang, Frankel, & German, 1994
). Me-
chanism of pro-oxidant activity of higher concentration of alpha toco-
pherol due to its oxidation is well explained by
Huang et al. (1994) and
Cillard and Cillard (1980)
. Moreover, when alpha tocopherol interacts
with metal ions such as Fe
3+
it can generate pro-oxidants such as Fe
2+
,
hydrogen peroxide and oxygen radicals (
Mahoney & Graf, 1986
)
through a process, known as Haber-Weiss cycle (
Mahoney & Graf,
1986
) and hence continue the oxidation for a prolonged period.
Therefore, the metal ions present in the FSO and the higher number of
oxidized alpha tocopherol generated by scavenging the free radicals in
FSO may have converted alpha tocopherol to a pro-oxidant. On the
other hand, no such interaction or pro-oxidant activities of TBHQ has
been reported, and hence it displayed highest protective activity in FSO.
Similar to alpha tocopherol, tannic acid and ascorbyl palmitate can
also interact with metal ions and generate pro-oxidants, that could be
the reason why they were not as good as TBHQ (
Gülçin, Huyut,
Elmasta
ş
, & Aboul-Enein, 2010
). However, the secondary antioxidant
capacities of tannic acid and ascorbyl palmitate, such as metal chelating
ability (
Fig. 2
d and f), hydrogen peroxide and singlet oxygen scaven-
ging capacities (
Beddows, Jagait, & Kelly, 2001; Gülçin, Huyut,
Elmasta
ş
, & Aboul-Enein, 2010
) may have reduced their pro-oxidant
e
ff
ects. In addition to this, ascorbyl palmitate has the capability to re-
generate the tocopherols naturally present in the oil (
Beddows et al.,
2001
), which can reduce lipid oxidation. Even though tannic acid dis-
played highest antioxidant capacities, it did not display the expected
e
ff
ects in FSO. This may be due to its poor solubility in FSO. In fact, a
white precipitate was observed in tannic acid-FSO mixtures after a few
days of storage, when the e
ff
ects of tannic acid were diminishing,
especially at higher concentrations. Even though moisture is present in
the FSO, it probably not enough to dissolve all the added tannic acid to
make a stable dispersion in FSO. However, such decrease in the e
ff
ec-
tiveness of tannic acid with increase in its concentration wasn
’
t ob-
served in rancimat experiments. Which could be due to the continuous
passage of air through the system that was facilitating a better disper-
sion of tannic acid in the oil, which helped in scavenging free radicals
and protect FSO form oxidation.
4. Conclusions
Overall, the study shows that the rate of peroxide formation and its
conversion into secondary oxidation products in the FSO was de-
termined by the nature and composition of the minor components and
the antioxidant activity. It was found that the secondary antioxidant
activity such as metal chelating ability, and free radical scavenging
capacity were crucial for the antioxidants to protect the FSO. Natural
antioxidant ascorbyl palmitate with intermediate polarity was equally
good as the synthetic antioxidant, TBHQ, on a molar concentration
basis, in preventing peroxide and secondary oxidation product forma-
tion and in increasing the oxidative stability index of the FSO due to
their high free radical scavenging ability and poor interaction with
metal ions. On the other hand, hydrophilic tannic acid, which is not
well soluble in the oil, was not able to prevent lipid oxidation in FSO.
Alpha-tocopherol, although oil soluble, acted as a pro-oxidant and
could not protect the FSO from oxidation. Finally, it can be concluded
that knowledge on antioxidant capacity, their ability to prevent per-
oxide formation, the composition of the minor components in the oil as
well as the mechanism of action of di
ff
erent antioxidants in the pre-
sence of minor components are vital for the e
ff
ective selection of an-
tioxidants to prevent FSO oxidation.
Acknowledgements
Financial support for this research was provided the Global Institute
for Food Security (GIFS) at the University of Saskatchewan and the
Agriculture Development Fund (ADF grant # 2014-0283) of the
Saskatchewan Ministry of Agriculture.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data associated with this article can be found, in the
online version, at
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2018.05.117
.
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