=
∗
∗
−
AV
A
A
W
25
1.25 (
)
c
s
(4)
where,
A
s
=
A
a
−
A
b
, and
W
is the weight of sample in grams.
2.5. Interfacial tension
Interfacial tension of the FSO-water interface with respect to time
and temperature as well as in the presence of di
ff
erent antioxidants
(200 ppm) were measured using an automatic tensiometer (Lauda TD2,
GmbH & Co., Lauda-Königshofen, Germany) with a Du Noüy ring
(20 mm diameter). Brie
fl
y, 30 mL water was added into the glass
sample cup (57 mm diameter), and then the Du Noüy ring was lowered
into the water, followed by the addition of FSO with di
ff
erent anti-
oxidants (30 mL). The maximum force measured while the ring was
pulling upwards to stretch the oil
–
water interface without breaking the
interface was recorded. Several consecutive maximum force readings
were made on each time of interface stretching at 5 min intervals, and
the measurement was stopped until the standard deviation became
lower than 0.10 mN/ m. The interfacial tension was then calculated
from the maximum force (
F
max
) using the following formula:
=
γ
F
πRβ
4
max
(5)
where,
γ
is the interfacial tension (mN/m); R is the radius of the ring
(10 mm);
β
is a correction factor that depends on the dimensions of the
ring and the density of the liquid involved (calculated automatically by
the instrument).
2.6. Statistical analysis
All measurements were triplicated and the results are reported as
the mean ± one standard deviation. The experimental data were
subjected to two-way (concentration of antioxidants and storage time/
type of the antioxidants) or one-way (concentration of antioxidants)
analysis of variance (ANOVA). Data analysis were done using Microsoft
Excel (one-way ANOVA) or SPSS package (IBM, SPSS Statistics 20.0)
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Components of
fl
axseed oil
The chemical properties (moisture, acid value, free fatty acids, sa-
poni
fi
cation value and iodine value), and minor components (car-
otenoid pro
fi
le, tocopherol, tocotrienols and sterol contents, phospho-
lipids, mono and di-glycerides) present in the FSO are given in
Tables 1
.
Fatty acid pro
fi
le of the FSO is also given in
Supplementary data (Table
S2)
.
FSO
consists
of
signi
fi
cantly
high
amount
of
moisture
(400 ± 2 ppm), di
ff
erent types of sterols, carotenoids (57 ppm),
gamma tocopherol (320 ppm) and diglycerides (15200 ppm). > 50% of
the total fatty acid of FSO was alpha linolenic acid, 21% was oleic acid
and 16% was linoleic acid. It also contained negligible amount
(< 10 ppm) of alpha, beta and delta tocopherols, tocotrienols, and
phospholipids.
3.2. Antioxidant capacity
3.2.1. DPPH radical scavenging capacity
DPPH radical scavenging capacity of the hydrophilic, hydrophobic
and intermediate polarity antioxidants are displayed in
Fig. 2
a
–
c. Re-
gardless of the type of antioxidants, the DPPH scavenging capacities of
all antioxidants were increased to a maximum with increasing anti-
oxidant concentrations. Among the hydrophilic antioxidants, tannic
acid displayed the highest free radical scavenging capacity, followed by
ca
ff
eic acid and ascorbic acid (
Fig. 2
a) (p < 0.05). The DPPH
scavenging capacity of tannic acid reached about 90% at only 10
μ
M
concentration,
conversely,
10 µM
ca
ff
eic
acid
displayed
only
33.1 ± 5.4% scavenging capacity. On the other hand, > 100 µM as-
corbic acid was required to exhibit the similar scavenging capacity as
shown by 50 µM ca
ff
eic acid and 5 µM tannic acid.
Among the natural hydrophobic antioxidants (
Fig. 2
b), alpha toco-
pherol displayed highest capacity in scavenging free radicals followed
by eugenol and beta carotene. Eugenol displayed slightly smaller DPPH
scavenging activity than alpha tocopherol at lower concentrations
(p < 0.05) and almost the similar e
ff
ectiveness at concentrations
above 100 µM (p > 0.05). At a lower concentration, the free radical
scavenging capacities of both the antioxidants were less than that of the
synthetic hydrophobic antioxidant TBHQ, which was
∼
90% at 50 µM.
Among all the hydrophobic antioxidant beta carotene displayed poor
radical scavenging capacity, which was only 14.0 ± 4.7% capacity
even at 400
μ
M concentration..
Among the antioxidants with intermediate polarity (
Fig. 2
c), quer-
cetin displayed higher scavenging capacity than ascorbyl palmitate at
concentrations below 50 µM (p < 0.05). However, on increasing the
antioxidant concentration above 50 µM, the scavenging capacity of
ascorbyl palmitate increased as much as that of quercetin and reached
their maximum scavenging capacity,
∼
90% at 50
μ
M concentration.
The scavenging capacity of quercetin (
Vaisali, Belur, & Regupathi,
2016
) and ascorbyl palmitate (
Gopinath, et al., 2004
) at di
ff
erent
concentrations were close to that was reported in the literature.
Free radical scavenging capacity of antioxidants is determined by
their ability to donate a hydrogen to the free radical and form a stable
antioxidant free radical. It was reported that the antioxidants con-
taining phenolic motifs in their structure are highly e
ffi
cient to sca-
venge free radicals and its scavenging ability is depended on the bond
dissociation energy between oxygen and phenolic hydrogen (
Choe &
Min, 2006, 2009; Litwinienko & Ingold, 2003
). Higher scavenging ca-
pacity is observed with decreased bond dissociation energy of the OH
group on the phenol ring (
Choe & Min, 2009
). Alkyl and OH group
Table 1
Chemical properties and minor components present in the
fl
axseed
oil.
Component
Amount
Moisture
400 ± 2 ppm
Acid Value
0.89 mg KOH/g oil
FFA % (linolenic acid)
0.447
Saponi
fi
cation Value
150
Iodine Value
178.10
Minor components
Amount (ppm)
a) Carotenoids
Astaxanthin
< 10
lautein
57.3
Gamma Tocopherol
< 10
Alpha-carotene
< 10
Trans-beta Carotene
< 10
Cis-beta carotene
< 0.01
Total Carotenoids
57.3
b) Sterols
Campesterol
976.4
Sigmasterol
211.6
B-sitosterol
1987.2
Other-sterols
2899.7
c) Tocopherols
Alpha Tocopherol
< 10
Beta Tocopherol
< 10
Gamma Tocopherol
380
Delta Tocopherol
< 010
d) Tocotrienols
< 10
e) Phospholipids
< 10
f) Others
Monoglycerides
< 1000
Diglycerides
1.5 × 10
4
A. Mohanan et al.
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