maximum of 7.4 ± 2.5% Fe
2+
chelation. With increasing antioxidant
concentration, metal chelating ability of all hydrophobic antioxidants
were increased to a maximum at 10 µM and remains constant or re-
duced thereafter. Alpha tocopherol displayed highest metal chelating
ability among the hydrophobic antioxidants, with 10 µM alpha toco-
pherol displayed a metal chelation of 20 ± 0.5%, followed by eugenol,
12.4 ± 2.1%, and beta carotene, 8.3 ± 2.5%.
For the antioxidants with intermediate polarity, the ascorbyl pal-
mitate and quercetin displayed almost similar capacity in chelating
Fe
2+
ions (
Fig. 2
f). Metal chelating abilities of these antioxidants in-
creased with increase in concentration up to 100 µM, and started de-
creasing thereafter in case of ascorbyl palmitate (p < 0.05) and re-
mained unchanged in case of quercetin (p > 0.05). To our knowledge,
there was no report on metal chelating ability of ascorbyl palmitate in
the literature. The metal chelating ability of quercetin (10 µM) used in
the present study was about four times lesser than that of quercetin of
same concentration reported in the literature (
Vaisali, et al., 2016
). This
could be due to the quercetin used in the current study was quercetin
dihydrates, in which some of the OH groups of the quercetin are hy-
drogen bonded to the water molecules, which prevented e
ff
ective de-
protonation of the OH groups essential for metal chelation. The in-
volvement of the oxygen atom lone pair electrons in forming hydrogen
bonds with water molecules might be responsible for its decreased
ability to chelate metal ions. Moreover, the water molecules might have
exerted some steric hindrance to the metal ions from reaching the
chelation sites of the polyphenol, thereby reducing the metal chelation
ability of quercetin dihydrates.
All the antioxidants, which displayed high metal chelating ability
have the following functional moities: two
–
OH,
–
OH and
–
COOH,
–
OH
and
–
C
]
O, on adjacent carbon atoms of the phenol ring (see
Fig. 1
),
which can promote metal chelation (
Hudson & Lewis, 1983
). These
functional groups in the antioxidants can use their lone pair of electrons
for metal chelation. Also, the presence of electron-donating (e.g., hy-
droxyl and alkyl groups on the para position of the phenol ring) or
electron-withdrawing groups (e.g., cyano, ammonium, or aldehyde
groups) attached to the antioxidant molecule can either enhance or
diminish the chelation mechanism, respectively. Although both as-
corbic acid and ascorbyl palmitate have the structural features required
for metal chelation, they were unable to show any chelation at their
higher concentrations. It could be due to the use of neutral pH (ascorbic
acid shows chelating ability only at the acidic pH (
Lynch & Cook,
1980
)) and the ability of Fe
2+
to catalyze oxidative degradation of
ascorbic acid (
Gosenca, Obreza, Pe
č
ar, & Ga
š
perlin, 2010; Khan &
Martell, 1967
)
3.3. Oxidative stability of
fl
axseed oil and its mixtures with antioxidants
Three natural antioxidants, such as tannic acid, alpha tocopherol
and ascorbyl palmitate, those displayed the highest antioxidant capa-
cities in each category, were selected for further study on their ability to
prevent FSO oxidation. Due to the higher surface activity of ascorbyl
palmitate, it was selected among the antioxidants with intermediate
polarity, although quercetin and ascorbyl palmitate displayed similar
antioxidant capacities (both free radical scavenging and metal chelating
abilities). It was found that ascorbyl palmitate (200 ppm) decreased
fl
axseed
oil
–
water
interfacial
tension
from
8.90 ± 0.61
to
6.85 ± 0.69 (p < 0.05), while at the same concentration of quercetin
interfacial tension decreased to 7.79 ± 0.15 (p < 0.05) (see
Table S3
of supporting document
).
3.3.1. Accelerated oxidative stability
Accelerated oxidative stability tests of FSO and its mixtures with
di
ff
erent concentrations of antioxidants were done using a rancimat by
measuring the oxidative stability index (OSI). Higher OSI means it
would take longer time to generate volatile oxidation products and
hence better stability of the oil. The OSI of FSO and its mixtures with
di
ff
erent concentration of antioxidants are displayed in
Fig. 3
. FSO
(without added antioxidants) displayed OSI of 2.4 ± 0.1 h at 110 °C.
All the antioxidants except alpha-tocopherol increased the induction
time of FSO, which indicates their capability to increase the oxidative
stability of FSO (p < 0.05). In general, OSI increased with increase in
antioxidant concentration (p < 0.05), except for alpha tocopherol,
where the OSI slightly decreased with an increase in concentration
(p < 0.05). The OSI of FSO with 400 ppm of alpha tocopherol was only
1.98 ± 0.04 h, indicating their pro-oxidant activity in FSO at all con-
centrations used in this study. Among the other antioxidants, TBHQ
displayed the highest e
ff
ect, followed by ascorbyl palmitate, then tannic
acid. The OSI of FSO increased to 27.5 ± 2.1 h with 400 ppm of TBHQ,
but only 18.1 ± 1.8 h and 5.0 ± 0.8 h with 400 ppm ascorbyl palmi-
tate and tannic acid, respectively (
Fig. 3
). However, if the concentration
of the antioxidants were plotted on a molar basis instead of ppm, the
e
ff
ectiveness of ascorbyl palmitate would be similar to TBHQ (
Fig. S2 in
supporting document
). For example, at 500 µM concentration both as-
corbyl palmitate and TBHQ displayed an OSI of about 15 h, although
the ppm concentration of ascorbyl palmitate (207.26 ppm) would be
much higher compared to TBHQ (83.11 ppm) at this same molar con-
centration. Nonetheless, the e
ff
ectiveness of tannic acid and alpha to-
copherol were signi
fi
cantly less than that of TBHQ and ascorbyl pal-
mitate, even if they were considered by their molar concentrations (
Fig.
S2 in supporting document
).
3.3.2. Long term storage stability study
Peroxide and
p
-anisidine values of FSO with and without anti-
oxidants were examined as a function of temperature (25, 40 and 60 °C)
and time (30 d). Peroxide value (PV) indicates the number of peroxides,
which are primary oxidation products during lipid oxidation.
p
-anisi-
dine value (AV) is a measure of non-volatile secondary oxidation pro-
ducts, especially aldehydes and ketones, in the bulk oil. Increase in PV
and AV therefore indicates the increase in formation of oxidation pro-
ducts in FSO.
The PV of FSO and its mixtures with varied concentrations of dif-
ferent antioxidants measured on di
ff
erent days up to 30 days at 25 °C,
40 °C and 60 °C are displayed in
Fig. 4
a
–
c. The PV of FSO without any
antioxidants
increased
with
increase
in
storage
temperatures
(p < 0.05), and doubled when temperature increased from 25 °C to
60 °C. However, PV did not signi
fi
cantly change (p > 0.05) during
storage at a constant temperature. The formation and proliferation of
these peroxides are hindered by free radical scavengers and natural
antioxidants present in the FSO (e.g., tocopherols, carotenoids and
sterols). At lower temperatures, only a fewer number of free radicals
were formed, which might be scavenged by these antioxidants and
Concentration (ppm)
0
100
200
300
400
Oxidative Stability Index (Hours)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Tannic Acid
Ascorbyl Palmitate
Alpha Tocopherol
TBHQ
Fig. 3.
The oxidative stability index (induction time) of
fl
axseed oil and its
mixtures with antioxidants treated at 110 °C.
A. Mohanan et al.
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