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Food Chemistry
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Oxidative stability of
fl
axseed oil: E
ff
ect of hydrophilic, hydrophobic and
intermediate polarity antioxidants
Athira Mohanan, Michael T. Nickerson, Supratim Ghosh
Department of Food and Bioproduct Sciences, University of Saskatchewan, 51 Campus Drive, Saskatoon, SK S7N5A8, Canada
A R T I C L E I N F O
Keywords:
Flaxseed oil
Natural antioxidants
Lipid oxidation
Rancimat
Peroxide value
P-anisidine value
Minor components
A B S T R A C T
Oxidative deterioration is a major issue limiting the utilization of
fl
axseed oil (FSO). Present study explored the
e
ff
ects of hydrophilic (tannic acid), hydrophobic (alpha-tocopherol), and intermediate polarity (ascorbyl pal-
mitate) natural antioxidants, which displayed highest DPPH radical scavenging and iron chelating abilities
among several others, on the oxidative stability of FSO. A synthetic antioxidant (TBHQ) was also used as a
control. FSO oxidation was examined by peroxide and p-anisidine values during 30-day storage at 25, 40 and
60 °C, and by accelerated oxidation using a rancimat at 110 °C. On mass concentration basis, all natural anti-
oxidants were less e
ff
ective than TBHQ. Irrespective of the polarity, all natural antioxidants, except alpha to-
copherol, delayed primary and secondary oxidation, and increased the oxidative stability index. The alpha-
tocopherol displayed pro-oxidant e
ff
ect at all concentrations. Rather than polarity, antioxidant capacities, and
their ability to replace minor components from the oil-water interface were crucial for the protection of FSO.
1. Introduction
Flaxseed oil (FSO) is a rich source of essential fatty acids [alpha-
linolenic acid (50
–
60%)] and vitamins [vitamin E (tocopherols ranges
from 20 to 70 mg/100 g), vitamin A (carotenoids,
∼
57 ppm)], and
hence represents an important ingredient in functional food products
(
unsaturated fatty acids present in FSO are highly susceptible towards
oxidation, and can form active free radicals in presence of heat, light,
reactive oxygen species, metals etc. which transform into hydroper-
oxides and secondary oxidation products such as, aldehydes, ketones
and other high molecular weight polymers ). The
presence of such oxidation products can alter the physicochemical
properties of oils, and deteriorates their shelf life, nutritional value,
texture, appearance and
fl
avour. Therefore, it is necessary to improve
the oxidative stability of FSO for processing, handling and storage,
without destroying the quality of the oil.
Treatment with antioxidants is one of the commonly used methods
to improve the oxidative stability of bulk oil. Antioxidants are reducing
agents, which can inhibit lipid oxidation either by scavenging free ra-
dicals, called the primary antioxidants, or by scavenging oxygen, hy-
drogen peroxide, quenching singlet oxygen and chelating pro-oxidant
metal ions, called the secondary antioxidants ). Synthetic antioxidants such as butylated
hydroxyanisole (BHU), butylated hydroxy toluene (BHT), tertiary butyl
hydroxy quinone (TBHQ) etc., are widely used to prevent the oxidative
deterioration of oil products, however concerns regarding their safety
has been questioned leading to shifting interest towards their natural
counterparts (
The selection of natural antioxidants for the prevention of lipid
oxidation is challenging because it depends on multiple factors such as,
fatty acid pro
fi
le of the oil, minor components present in the oil and
structure and functionality of the antioxidants themselves etc. (
acid pro
fi
le, for instance, it was found that in rapeseed and olive oil the
hydroperoxides transforms to secondary oxidation products im-
mediately after their formation, indicating the instability of the per-
oxides while in sun
fl
ower and sa
ffl
ower oils, a signi
fi
cant amount of
hydroperoxides will be formed prior to their transformation into sec-
ondary oxidation products (
active minor components (e.g., phospholipids, mono and di-glycerides
and free fatty acids) can form structures with moisture to make them
compete with antioxidants to be at the oil-water interface, where the
oxidation is signi
fi
cant with the minor components vary signi
fi
cantly with the antioxidant
structure and concentration. This is why the polar paradox theory,
widely-used for the selection of the antioxidants tends to fail in several
circumstances ). According to this theory, when
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2018.05.117
Received 24 January 2018; Received in revised form 6 May 2018; Accepted 26 May 2018
⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address:
supratim.ghosh@usask.ca
(S. Ghosh).
Food Chemistry 266 (2018) 524–533
Available online 26 May 2018
0308-8146/ © 2018 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
the hydrophobicity of antioxidant increases, its e
ff
ect on bulk oil di-
minishes. Contradicting to this, with increasing chain length, the anti-
oxidant capacity of esters of several phenols such as ca
ff
eic acid, va-
nillin acid, ferrulic acid etc. on bulk oils increases (
Merkl, Hradkova,
Filip, & Smidrkal, 2010
). Therefore, more investigations need to be
done on the same oil with di
ff
erent types of antioxidants and in the
presence of di
ff
erent minor components to uncover the underlying
principles of natural antioxidant selection.
In the present study, three hydrophilic (tannic acid, ca
ff
eic acid, and
ascorbic), three hydrophobic (alpha tocopherol, eugenol and beta car-
otene) and two intermediate polarity (quercetin and ascorbyl palmi-
tate) natural antioxidants were initially selected. Based on their free
radical scavenging and iron chelating abilities, one antioxidant each
from the hydrophilic, hydrophobic and intermediate polarity category
was examined for their ability to prevent FSO oxidation during long
term storage at di
ff
erent temperatures and concentrations, and using an
accelerated oxidative test. The structures of the selected antioxidants
are provided in
Fig. 1
. Quercetin is poorly soluble in water and oil, and
reported to have some surface activity (
Di Mattia, Sacchetti,
Mastrocola, Sarker, & Pittia, 2010
), therefore, it has been considered as
an antioxidant with intermediate polarity. A synthetic hydrophobic
antioxidant, TBHQ, which is known to have signi
fi
cant antioxidant
capacity to prevent the vegetable oil oxidation, has also been used in
this study as a control.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Materials
Flaxseed oil was kindly donated by Bioriginal Food & Science Corp.
(Saskatoon, SK, Canada). It was extracted using screw press technology
and
fi
ltered before storing in a 5-gallon bucket at
−
40 °C under ni-
trogen headspace. Prior to sample preparation the whole fat was melted
at
−
4 °C to make sure that the oil was homogeneous. Antioxidants
tannic acid, ca
ff
eic acid,
L
-ascorbic acid, ascorbyl palmitate, alpha to-
copherol, retinol, beta carotene, eugenol, tert-butyl hydroxyl Quinone
(TBHQ) were purchased from Sigma Aldrich (Oakville, ON, Canada)
while quercetin dihydrate was purchased from VWR (Mississauga, ON,
Canada). Other reagents including 2, 2-diphenyl-1-picryl hydrazyl
(DPPH), iron (II) chloride, iron (III) chloride, ferrozine, ammonium
thiocyanate, barium chloride dihydrate, iron (II) sulphate, methanol
and chloroform were purchased from Sigma Aldrich. Ethanol was
supplied by Green
fi
eld Global Inc. (Brampton, ON, Canada). Millipore
(deionized) water was used for all analyses.
2.2. Determination of
fl
axseed oil composition and chemical properties
The fatty acid pro
fi
le, mono and diglyceride contents of the FSO
were determined using AOCS methods (AOCS Ce1i-07,1b and AOCS Cd
11d-96, respectively). The carotenoid pro
fi
le, tocopherol and toco-
trienols, sterols, and phospholipid pro
fi
le of FSO were determined by
POS Bio-Sciences (Saskatoon, SK, Canada) using their internal chro-
matographic method. Free fatty acid content of FSO was measured
using acid value (number of mg of KOH required to neutralize free fatty
acids present in 1 g of sample) according to ASTM D 974. The saponi-
fi
cation value (number of mg of KOH required to saponify 1 g of oil)
was measured using ASTM D5558. Iodine value was calculated from
fatty acid pro
fi
le using the method described by Kyriakidis and
Katsiloulis (
Kyriakidis & Katsiloulis, 2000
).
2.3. Antioxidant capacity tests
Antioxidant capacities of the selected compounds (tannic acid,
ca
ff
eic acid, ascorbyl palmitate, alpha tocopherol, eugenol, beta car-
otene and quercetin) were determined by free radical scavenging ca-
pacity assay using DPPH free radicals, and metal chelating ability using
Fe
2+
ions at room temperature (22 ± 2 °C).
2.3.1. Free radical scavenging capacity assay
Free radical scavenging capacity of antioxidants was determined
using DPPH radical using a method by (
Maqsood & Benjakul, 2010
)
with slight modi
fi
cations. Brie
fl
y, antioxidant (5
–
400 µM) and DPPH
Fig. 1.
The structure of di
ff
erent polar, non-polar and surface-active antioxidants used in the present study.
A. Mohanan et al.
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