γ
-Irradiation
Nonresponsive anemia
Bone marrow
Stromal reaction-myelofibrosis
β
-Lactam antibiotics
Neutropenia
Neutrophils
Immune-mediated
α
-Methyldopa
Immune-mediated anemia
Erythrocytes
Anti-erythrocyte autoantibodies
α
-Methyldopa
Thrombocytopenia
Platelets
Anti-platelet autoantibodies
Nitrites
Heinz body anemia
Erythrocytes
Methemoglobin and Heinz body formation
Penicillin
Immune-mediated anemia
Erythrocytes
Anti-penicillin antibodies bind to coated erythrocytes
Ristocetin
Thrombocytopenia
Platelets
Intravascular agglutination
Tumor necrosis factor
Hypoproliferative anemia
Bone marrow
Decreased availability of iron
Warfarin
Blood loss anemia
Liver
Decreased vitamin K-dependent clotting factor production
interconnected through an endosteal network of vessels. The
venous sinuses are thin-walled, consisting of a layer of flat en-
dothelial cells with little to no basement membrane. The mar-
row does not have lymphatic drainage (Munka and Gregor,
1965).
Bone marrow innervation occurs with myelinated and non-
myelinated nerves that enter through the nutrient canals.
Some innervation also occurs through epiphyseal and meta-
physeal foramina. Nerve bundles follow the arterioles with
branches serving the smooth muscle of the vessles or, oc-
casionally, terminating in the hematopoietic tissue amongst
hematopoietic cells.
The hematopoietic tissue consists of a variety of cell
types including, the blood cells and their precursors, ad-
ventitial/barrier cells, adipocytes, and macrophages. The
hematopoietic tissue cells are not randomly arranged but
demonstrate a particular organization within the tissue (Weiss
and Geduldig, 1991) (Figure 2). For hematopoiesis to occur
it must be supported by a microenvironment that is able to
recognize and retain hematopoietic stem cells and provide
the factors (e.g., cytokines) required to support proliferation,
differentiation and maturation of stem cells along commit-
ted lineages. The hematopoietic microenvironment consists
of adventitial reticular cells (e.g., barrier cells), endothelial
cells, macrophages, adipocytes, possibly, bone lining cells
(e.g., osteoblasts) and elements of the extracellular matrix. A
more detailed discussion of the organization and function of
the hematopoietic microenvironment can be found elsewhere
(Weiss and Geduldig, 1991; Hoffman et al., 2000; Gasper,
2000a, 2000b, 2000c; Abboud and Lichtman, 2001).
Hematopoiesis is a compartmentalized process within the
hematopoietic tissue with erythropoiesis taking place in dis-
tinct anatomical units (erythroblastic islands); granulopoiesis
occurs in less distinct foci and megakaryopoiesis occurs
adjacent to the sinus endothelium. Upon maturation, the
hematopoietic cells, regulated by the barrier cells, traverse the
wall of the venous sinuses to enter the bloodstream; platelets
are released directly into the blood from cytoplasmic pro-
cesses of megakaryocytes penetrating through the sinus wall
into the sinus lumen. Details of the hematopoietic process
can be found elsewhere (Jain, 1986b; Hoffman et al., 2000;
Gasper, 2000a, 2000b, 2000c; Abboud and Lichtman, 2001).
The production, differentiation, and maturation of blood
cells are regulated by humoral factors (Table 2). Some factors
(e.g., BPA/IL-3) act on the more primitive cells and have a
general action, while others (e.g., erythropoietin) act on later
progenitors of a specific cell line. The sources of hematopoi-
etic factors vary. Erythropoietin is produced primarily in the
kidney with minor amounts from the liver and stimulates pro-
liferation of committed erythrocytic progenitors and release
of immature red cells; high levels increase the rate of differen-
tiation into erythrocyte progenitors. Burst promoting activity
T
ABLE
2.—Examples of factors that stimulate hematopoiesis.
Stimulation of pluripotent cells
Stem cell factor
IL-6
Erythropoiesis
Burst promoting activity (BPA)
Erythropoietin
Granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF)
Thyroid hormone
Growth Hormone
Testosterone
Granulocytopoiesis
GM-CSF
Granulocytopoietin (G-CSF)
IL-1
IL-3
IL-5
Eosinophilopoietin
Basophilopoietin
Interferon (INF)
Tumor necrosis factor (TNF)
Monocytopoiesis
GM-CSF
Macrophage colony stimulating factor (M-CSF)
Monocytopoietin
IL-3
Lymphopoiesis
Thymic hormone
Lymphocyte mitogenic factor
B-cell growth factor
B-cell differentiation factor
IL-1
IL-2
IL-3
IL-4
Megakaryocytopoiesis
M-CSF
Thrombopoietin
550
TRAVLOS
T
OXICOLOGIC
P
ATHOLOGY
F
IGURE
1.—Representative examples of bone marrow cellularity in long and
axial bones of normal adult B6C3F1mice. The marrow spaces contain islands
and clusters of hematopoietic cells admixed with adipocytes. (A) Distal femur.
(B) Sternum. (C) Vertebra.
(BPA) is produced by T-lymphocytes and macrophages. IL-
3 is produced by T-lymphocytes and myeloid cells and
may be the same macromolecule as BPA. Colony simu-
lating factors are produced by a variety of cells, includ-
ing macrophages/monocytes, fibroblasts, endothelial cells,
lymphocytes, and placenta. Most interleukins, B-cell growth
factor, and B-cell differentiation factor are derived from T-
lymphocytes. IL-1is produced by macrophages. Hormones
also play a physiological role (Jain, 1986c). For example,
circulating erythrocyte counts increase or decrease following
gonad removal in female and male rats, respectively; admin-
istration of the respective sex hormones abrogated the effects
of gonadectomy. Additionally, bone marrow morphology was
altered following ovariectomy in female rats (Benayahu et al.,
2000). Hormones of the pituitary, adrenals, thyroid and go-
nads appear to participate in erythropoiesis by altering ery-
thropoietin production and erythroid progenitor response to
other factors (Jain, 1986c). For example, androgens, thyrox-
ine and growth hormone increase erythropoietin production;
estrogen has an inhibitory erythropoietic effect.
Hematopoietic tissue is also sensitive to external influences
and can become suppressed in response to dietary restric-
tion, malnutrition, chronic inflammation, toxicity, and pro-
liferative or neoplastic disorders (Jain, 1986d; Meierhenry,
1990; Wierda, 1990; Reagan, 1993; NTP, 1999; NIEHS,
1999, 2001; Lund, 2000; Weiss, 2000). In the rat, nutritional
status is an important factor (Meierhenry, 1990). For exam-
ple, diet restriction sufficient to halt weight gain in young rats
decreased marrow erythroid elements by 50%, myeloid ele-
ments by 40%, and megakaryocytes by 20% (Brown, 1954).
Complete restriction for 7 days reduced marrow cellularity
by 30% (Furman and Gordon, 1955). Levin et al. (1993),
demonstrated that a severe (25% of control) diet restriction
for 2 weeks resulted in a relative erythrocytosis, lymphope-
nia, thrombocytopenia and bone marrow necrosis. And, it has
been reported that, in the rat, protein intake, rather than total
calories, is more important for maintenance of erythropoiesis
(Bethard et al., 1958).
Hematopoiesis is a continuous process, but can be sepa-
rated into distinct stages (Figure 6). The first stage involves
uncommitted (pluripotent) stem cells contained in the bone
marrow. These pluripotent cells have two primary functions.
First, they maintain their numbers by a process of self-
renewal and, secondly, they have the ability to give rise to
all hematopoietic cells (erythrocytes, granulocytes, lympho-
cytes, monocytes, and platelets). They also appear to be found
in greater numbers peripherally from the central axis, near
the bone lining cells (Weiss and Geduldig, 1991; Picker and
Siegelman, 1999; Gasper, 2000c).
Most of the understanding of hematopoietic proliferation
and maturation has been derived using an irradiated syn-
geneic mouse model. Irradiated mice infused with donor cells
give rise to hematopoietic foci in the spleen. In vivo, it was
demonstrated that the stem cell pool could be measured in
the rat and mouse (Till and McCulloch, 1961). Donor mouse
cells injected into an irradiated mouse formed nodules in
the spleen that could be visually counted. It was demon-
strated that these splenic colonies were clones (Becker et al.,
1963) and that the cells within these colonies were capable
of self-renewal and differentiation into the major cell lines
(Till et al., 1964). These splenic colonies have been shown to
arise from a single pluripotent cell, which has been termed the
colony forming unit-spleen (CFU-S). Depending on need, the
bone marrow microenvironment and growth factors influence
pluripotent stem cells to differentiate into committed stem
cells of either the myeloid or lymphoid series (multipotential
Vol. 34, No. 5, 2006
HISTOLOGY OF THE BONE MARROW
551
F
IGURE
2.—Schema of IL-1
α
-activated distal medial metaphyseal femoral hematopoietic murine marrow. Trabecular bone (leader terminates on a canaliculus
containing extensions of an osteocyte) is enclosed by a complex layer of diverse cells. Osteoblasts (osteobl) and an osteoclast (osteocl), flat, simple, or two-layered
nonactivated bone-lining cells (blc) are present. Reticular cells branch from the surface of bone to the adventitial surface of vascular sinuses (sinus 2). Barrier
cells cover two sites on the surface of bone, and extend en bloc into the marrow. The barrier cells are activated, displaying organelles associated with intense
protein synthesis and secretion. From the dependent aspect of bone, massed barrier cells sweep in a crescent, deep into the marrow. The crescent of barrier cells
holds many hematopoietic cells, notably putative stem cells and differentiating megakaryoctes. On the crescent’s edge, barrier cells branch into the surrounding
hematopoietic cells meeting with rather loosely disposed, richly branched barrier cells lying among and supporting hematopoietic cells. Barrier cells, especially in
hematopoietic zones containing very early differentiating stages, may insinuate long, slender processes between and around endothelium and adventitial tunics. The
blood-marrow barrier is thereby augmented, impeding emigration and immigration of circulating cells, preventing premature release of immature hematopoietic cells
to the circulation. In contrast, profiles of vascular sinuses (sinus 3) can be made entirely of a simple layer of barrier cells stretched quite thin, except at the perikaryon.
These lie in hematopoietic zones containing late differentiating forms ready for delivery to the circulation, their wall beset with blood cell-filled apertures. They are
structurally suited to facilitate delivery of blood cells to the circulation. From: Weiss, L. and Geduldig, U. Barrier cells: Stromal regulation of hematopoiesis and
blood cell release in normal and stressed murine bone marrow.
Blood
1991; 78:975-990. Copyright American Society of Hematology, used with permission.
552
TRAVLOS
T
OXICOLOGIC
P
ATHOLOGY
F
IGURE
3.—The cross-section (A) and longitudinal section (B) from the femur of a male B6C3F1control from a 28-day toxicity study shows a cellular rich bone
marrow. The arrow indicates the central vein, and the arrowheads identify representative venous sinuses. The asterisk in 3A identifies an area of shrinkage artifact
associated with histologic processing of the bone. CB
=
cortical bone.
Vol. 34, No. 5, 2006
HISTOLOGY OF THE BONE MARROW
553
F
IGURE
4.—This high magnification of the femur cross-section shown in 3A more clearly shows the central vein (CV), nutrient arteries (arrowheads), and venous
sinuses (arrows) within the cellular rich bone marrow.
stem cells), or the second stage of hematopoiesis. They
have a limited capacity for self-renewal, but have the po-
tential to differentiate and develop mature progeny. Myeloid
stem cells are the multipotential colony forming unit for
granulocytes, erythrocytes, monocytes, and megakaryocytes
(CFU-GEMM). The third stage is when committed stem
cells, influenced by various growth factors, differentiate into
lineage-specific progenitor cells. Progenitor cells exist in the
bone marrow for megakaryocytes (CFU-Meg), lymphocytes,
erythrocytes (BFU-E), eosinophils (CFU-Eos), and basophils
(CFU-Baso). It appears neutrophils and monocytes arise from
a common precursor (CFU-GM).
Lymphopoiesis occurs within the bone marrow microen-
vironment of adult mammals (Allen and Dexter, 1984). And
B-lineage cells derived from the marrow can be identified
by sequential changes in cell size and expression of im-
munoglobulin chains. Large pre-B cells are early precursors
and contain heavy chains within the cytoplasm (Landreth
and Kincade, 1984). Large pre-B cells (
∼
10–13 microns)
divide at least once to produce smaller (
<
9 microns) pre-
B cells. With gene rearrangement, the small pre-B lympho-
cytes mature into B cells; they express K and A light chains
in the cytoplasm (Wierda, 1990). The sequence of prolif-
eration/maturation of B-lymphopoiesis is regulated by sol-
uble factors secreted by stromal cells (Picker and Siegel-
man, 1999) and is sensitive to disruption by myelotoxic
chemicals. For example, polyhydroxy metabolites of ben-
zene (e.g., hydroquinone) have been shown to affect B-
lymphopoiesis in the marrow causing maturation arrest of
the B-cells at the pre-B cell stage (Wierda and Irons, 1982;
King et al., 1988). T-cell lymphopoiesis occurs in the thymus
that has been seeded with bone marrow-derived stem cells
(Le Douarin et al., 1984). There is some evidence indicat-
ing that the prothymocytes have undergone some differenti-
ation and/or commitment prior to relocating to the thymus
(Picker and Siegelman, 1999). Morphologically, the rat or
mouse bone marrow did not have, nor develop, lymphoid-
cell aggregates or structures resembling follicles, even af-
ter immunization (Geldof et al., 1983). Further, while the
marrow appeared to have a suitable microenvironment for
554
TRAVLOS
T
OXICOLOGIC
P
ATHOLOGY
F
IGURE
5.—Diagrammatical representation of the vascular supply of the bone marrow. Adapted from: Abboud, C. N. and Lichtman, M. A. (2001) Structure of the
marrow and the hematopoietic microenvironment. In Williams Hematology, 6th edition. Copyright McGraw-Hill, used with permission. Adaptive drawing by David
Sabio. 6.—Representation of the maturation progression of the multiple cellular lineages present in the bone marrow. CFU
=
colony forming unit; E
=
erythyroid;
Meg
=
megakaryocyte; Gemm
=
granulocytic, erythyroid, monocyte-macrophage, and megakaryocytic; GM
=
granulocyte/monocyte; G
=
granulocyte; M
=
monocyte; Eo
=
eosinophil; Baso
=
basophil; L
=
lymphocyte. Drawing by David Sabio.
Vol. 34, No. 5, 2006
HISTOLOGY OF THE BONE MARROW
555
immigrating antibody-producing cells, the cells dispersed
singly, in a random arrangement, and did not appear to con-
tribute to the immune response.
M
ETHODS FOR
E
VALUATING THE
B
ONE
M
ARROW
Evaluation of the hematopoietic system should be per-
formed using a multi-pronged approach (i.e., peripheral blood
exam including a CBC and differential, bone marrow smear
exam or total femur counts and evaluation of cytocentrifuge
preparations and/or bone marrow histopathology). Bone mar-
row histopathology and examination of peripheral blood are
performed routinely in toxicity and safety assessment studies.
Cytological preparations can be made routinely but evalua-
tions are generally reserved for instances in which hemato-
logical changes are identified and determination of the un-
derlying cause is needed.
Histopathology is a subjective assessment and is useful for
evaluating bone marrow architecture, assessment of cellular-
ity, estimation of M:E ratio (limited sensitivity), assessment
of cell lineages, estimation of iron stores and other features
(e.g., neoplasia, inflammation, pigment, infectious agents).
Marrow smear evaluations and/or total femur counts pro-
vide quantitative results and better cellular morphology and
determination of M:E ratios and maturation indices. While
the following is a brief overview, more detailed informa-
tion and techniques regarding histological and cytological
evaluation of bone marrow have been described (Lewis and
Rebar, 1979; Cline and Maronpot, 1985; Grindem, 1989;
Tyler and Cowell, 1989; Wickramasinghe, 1992; Buckley,
1995; Andrews, 1998; Car and Blue, 2000; Freeman, 2000;
Lanning, 2001; Valli et al., 2002).
When performing core marrow biopsies in adult dogs, it is
usually necessary to take samples from the iliac crest, ster-
num, proximal humerus, trochanteric fossa of the femur or
a rib, as the central femoral marrow cavity may be almost
entirely replaced by fat. In the rat and mouse, however, the
higher turnover of erythrocytes, due to a shorter circulating
life span, means that the marrow space in most bones re-
mains populated for life. And, in the rodent, it appears that
the sternum and rib and, probably, humerus and proximal fe-
mur are important sampling sites, as the marrow at these sites
remains hematopoietically active regardless of the animal’s
age. For example, in the Fischer rat, from 4 months to 2 years
of age, the sternum, ribs, humerus and proximal femur had a
relatively similar marrow cellularity of approximately 68%
(Cline and Maronpot, 1985). The distal femur and proximal
tibia were similar at approximately 61% marrow cellularity.
Regardless of age, the distal tibia had a noticeable lack of
active hematopoiesis.
It is generally considered that, in the dog, normal bone mar-
row contains about 50% fat and 50% hematopoietic tissue;
approximately 70 to 80% of the marrow being hematopoietic
tissue in rats and mice (Valli et al., 2002). In the dog, how-
ever, marrow cellularity may range from 20% to 80% of the
marrow space, depending on site and age (Weiss, 1986; Valli
et al., 2002) (Figure 7). In a study evaluating Fischer rats,
depending on the age and anatomic site, the average marrow
space occupied by hematopoietic cells varied from 33–88%
(Cline and Maronpot, 1985). In that study, the youngest an-
imals had the highest marrow cellularity. For example, re-
gardless of site, the mean marrow cellularity was
∼
80% at
2 months of age; by 2 years of age, the cellularity decreased
to a mean of
∼
66%. Examples of normal rat and mouse bone
marrow are shown in Figures 8 and 9.
In general, decalcified, paraffin-embedded, hematoxylin
and eosin (H&E)-stained sections of bone marrow, the
more mature stages of the erythroid and myeloid cells,
adipocytes, mast cells, and megakaryocytes can be identi-
fied, but stem cells, immature myeloid, erythroid, lymphoid,
monocytoid and stromal cells cannot be identified consis-
tently. An estimation of general hematopoietic activity and
the myeloid/erythroid ratio can also be performed. The ery-
throid elements are smaller with round, dense, and deeply
basophilic nuclei (Figure 10). The cytoplasm is basophilic in
the blast forms with increasing eosinophilia as they mature.
The granulocytes have large bean-shaped nuclei that are less
basophilic and more vesicular than the erythropoietic cells
(Figure 10). Megakaryocytes are easily recognized by their
large size and multilobulated nuclei (Figure 10). While ma-
ture lymphocytes can be identified in bone marrow smears
(Figure 12), unequivocal identification of lymphoid lineage
cells in decalcified H&E-stained sections of bone with bone
marrow is not readily accomplished.
For smears, marrow can be obtained from an exposed sur-
face of, or extruded from, the sternum or rib using a sable
brush (e.g., size 000) moistened with homologous serum or
physiologic saline to which EDTA has been added. The tip
of the brush is rolled gently in the exposed marrow and sev-
eral stripes of marrow are made on glass slides; multiple
slides may be prepared for special stains or techniques. For
dogs, imprints of sternal marrow or aspirates from the iliac
crest, sternum, proximal humerus, or trochanteric fossa of
the femur may be collected and placed in EDTA/physiologic
saline. When marrow granules have been obtained, crush
preparations may be prepared by flattening and spreading the
marrow flecks between two glass slides to produce a smear
(Figure 11).
Preparations from samples obtained without EDTA may
be used as long as the smears are prepared immediately af-
ter sample collection. Smears can be made from antemortem
or postmortem samples. Postmortem collections should be
performed as soon as possible following sacrifice (within
minutes); in the dog, it has been indicated that postmortem
samples should be taken within 30 minutes following the an-
imal’s death (Tyler and Cowell, 1989). The air-dried smears
are then stained using a general procedure for Romanowsky-
type staining of blood films. Since marrow smears tend to
be thicker than blood films, staining times must be modi-
fied (at least 2x longer) to ensure adequate staining. Also,
formalin may affect the staining qualities of the marrow
smears, care should be used to avoid contact of the mar-
row or marrow smears with formalin or its vapors prior
to staining. Using the 100x objective, a morphological as-
sessment of individual cell lineages and a differential bone
marrow count is performed. Differential counts are best per-
formed on 500-cell counts but lower counts (e.g., 250-cell
counts) have been utilized. The differential should classify
cells by type (e.g., myeloid, erythroid, megakaryocytic, lym-
phoid, macrophage, etc.) and stage (e.g., rubriblast, prorubri-
cyte, rubricyte, metarubricyte, etc.) (Figures 12–17). Relative
percentages of the cells, M:E ratios and maturation indices
can then be calculated. Examples of differential counts of
556
TRAVLOS
T
OXICOLOGIC
P
ATHOLOGY
F
IGURE
7.—Low (A) and higher (B) magnification of the femoral marrow from a normal young adult dog. Photomicrograph courtesy of Drs. Hans Harleman and
Kathryn Bowenkamp.
Vol. 34, No. 5, 2006
HISTOLOGY OF THE BONE MARROW
557
F
IGURE
8.—Low (A) and higher (B) magnification of the distal femoral marrow from a control female F344 rat at the end of a 90-day study. Adipocytes occupy
more of the marrow space than hematpoietic cells in this rat. There is a wide range of normal hematopoietic cellularity in bone marrow with high variability among
different bone sites. This degree of hematopoietic cellularity is within the normal range for a 4- to 5-month old F344 rat.
558
TRAVLOS
T
OXICOLOGIC
P
ATHOLOGY
F
IGURE
9.—This low (A) and higher (B) magnification of the distal femoral bone marrow is from a control female B6C3F1mouse at the end of a 90-day study
and shows a difference in bone marrow hematopoietic cellularity in comparison to the control rat in Figure 8. As is the case in the rat, there is also a wide range of
normal hematopoietic cellularity in mouse bone marrow. Mice generally have a more cellular bone marrow than rats.
bone marrow from normal rats and dogs are presented in
Table 3.
For histopathology, numerous variables regarding speci-
men collection and processing (e.g., fixation, decalcification,
embedding, sectioning and staining) may affect the quality of
the sample to be evaluated and must be considered. For a de-
tailed discussion, the reader is referred to references regarding
processing procedures (Bennett et al., 1976; Beckstead et al.,
Vol. 34, No. 5, 2006
HISTOLOGY OF THE BONE MARROW
559
F
IGURE
10.—Bone marrow from a normal 6-month-old 129 mouse. This highly cellular bone marrow has areas of myeloid (M) and erythroid (E) hematopoiesis
as well as megakaryocytes (arrows).
1981; Moosavi et al., 1981; Weiss, 1987; Wickramasinghe,
1992; Callis and Sterchi, 1998; Hedrich and Bullock, 2004;
Fero, 2005). A brief description follows.
Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |