Newspapers a newspaper

NEWSPAPERS

A newspaper is a periodical publication containing written information about current events and is often typed in black ink with a white or gray background.

Newspapers can cover a wide variety of fields such as politics, business, sports and art, and often include materials such as opinion columns, weather forecasts, reviews of local services, obituaries, birth notices, crosswords, editorial cartoons, comic strips, and advice columns.

Most newspapers are businesses, and they pay their expenses with a mixture of subscription revenue, newsstand sales, and advertising revenue. The journalism organizations that publish newspapers are themselves often metonymically called newspapers.

Newspapers have traditionally been published in print (usually on cheap, low-grade paper called newsprint). However, today most newspapers are also published on websites as online newspapers, and some have even abandoned their print versions entirely.

Newspapers developed in the 17th century, as information sheets for businessmen. By the early 19th century, many cities in Europe, as well as North and South America, published newspapers.

Some newspapers with high editorial independence, high journalism quality, and large circulation are viewed as newspapers of record.

Overview

Newspapers are typically published daily or weekly. News magazines are also weekly, but they have a magazine format. General-interest newspapers typically publish news articles and feature articles on national and international news as well as local news. The news includes political events and personalities, business and finance, crime, weather, and natural disasters; health and medicine, science, and computers and technology; sports; and entertainment, society, food and cooking, clothing and home fashion, and the arts.

Usually the paper is divided into sections for each of those major groupings (labeled A, B, C, and so on, with pagination prefixes yielding page numbers A1-A20, B1-B20, C1-C20, and so on). Most traditional papers also feature an editorial page containing editorials written by an editor (or by the paper's editorial board) and expressing an opinion on a public issue, opinion articles called "op-eds" written by guest writers (which are typically in the same section as the editorial), and columns that express the personal opinions of columnists, usually offering analysis and synthesis that attempts to translate the raw data of the news into information telling the reader "what it all means" and persuading them to concur. Papers also include articles which have no byline; these articles are written by staff writers.

A wide variety of material has been published in newspapers. Besides the aforementioned news, information and opinions, they include weather forecasts; criticism and reviews of the arts (including literature, film, television, theater, fine arts, and architecture) and of local services such as restaurants; obituaries, birth notices and graduation announcements; entertainment features such as crosswords, horoscopes, editorial cartoons, gag cartoons, and comic strips; advice columns, food, and other columns; and radio and television listings (program schedules). As of 2017, newspapers may also provide information about new movies and TV shows available on streaming video services like Netflix. Newspapers have classified ad sections where people and businesses can buy small advertisements to sell goods or services; as of 2013, the huge increase in Internet websites for selling goods, such as Craigslist and eBay has led to significantly less classified ad sales for newspapers.

Most newspapers are businesses, and they pay their expenses with a mixture of subscription revenue, newsstand sales, and advertising revenue (other businesses or individuals pay to place advertisements in the pages, including display ads, classified ads, and their online equivalents). Some newspapers are government-run or at least government-funded; their reliance on advertising revenue and on profitability is less critical to their survival. The editorial independence of a newspaper is thus always subject to the interests of someone, whether owners, advertisers, or a government. Some newspapers with high editorial independence, high journalism quality, and large circulation are viewed as newspapers of record.

Many newspapers, besides employing journalists on their own payrolls, also subscribe to news agencies (wire services) (such as the Associated Press, Reuters, or Agence France-Presse), which employ journalists to find, assemble, and report the news, then sell the content to the various newspapers. This is a way to avoid duplicating the expense of reporting from around the world. Circa 2005, there were approximately 6,580 daily newspaper titles in the world selling 395 million print copies a day (in the U.S., 1,450 titles selling 55 million copies).^[1] The late 2000s–early 2010s global recession, combined with the rapid growth of free web-based alternatives, has helped cause a decline in advertising and circulation, as many papers had to retrench operations to stanch the losses.^[2] Worldwide annual revenue approached $100 billion in 2005-7, then plunged during the worldwide financial crisis of 2008-9. Revenue in 2016 fell to only $53 billion, hurting every major publisher as their efforts to gain online income fell far short of the goal.^[3]

The decline in advertising revenues affected both the print and online media as well as all other mediums; print advertising was once lucrative but has greatly declined, and the prices of online advertising are often lower than those of their print precursors. Besides remodeling advertising, the internet (especially the web) has also challenged the business models of the print-only era by crowdsourcing both publishing in general (sharing information with others) and, more specifically, journalism (the work of finding, assembling, and reporting the news). In addition, the rise of news aggregators, which bundle linked articles from many online newspapers and other sources, influences the flow of web traffic. Increasing paywalling of online newspapers may be counteracting those effects. The oldest newspaper still published is the Ordinari Post Tijdender, which was established in Stockholm in 1645.

Definitions

Newspapers typically meet four criteria:^[4][5]

• 
  Public accessibility: Its contents are reasonably accessible to the public, traditionally by the paper being sold or distributed at newsstands, shops, and libraries, and, since the 1990s, made available over the Internet with online newspaper websites. While online newspapers have increased access to newspapers by people with Internet access, people without Internet or computer access (e.g., homeless people, impoverished people and people living in remote or rural regions may not be able to access the Internet, and thus will not be able to read online news). Literacy is also a factor which prevents people who cannot read from being able to benefit from reading newspapers (paper or online).
  
• 
  Periodicity: They are published at regular intervals, typically daily or weekly. This ensures that newspapers can provide information on newly-emerging news stories or events.
  
• 
  Currency: Its information is as up to date as its publication schedule allows. The degree of up-to-date-ness of a print newspaper is limited by the need of time to print and distribute the newspaper. In major cities, there may be a morning edition and a later edition of the same day's paper, so that the later edition can incorporate breaking news that have occurred since the morning edition was printed. Online newspapers can be updated as frequently as new information becomes available, even a number of times per day, which means that online editions can be very up-to-date.
  
• 
  Universality: Newspapers covers a range of topics, from political and business news to updates on science and technology, arts, culture, and entertainment.
  

History

Gazettes and bulletins

In Ancient Rome, Acta Diurna, or government announcement bulletins, were produced. They were carved in metal or stone and posted in public places. In China, early government-produced news-sheets, called Dibao, circulated among court officials during the late Han dynasty (second and third centuries AD). Between 713 and 734, the Kaiyuan Za Bao ("Bulletin of the Court") of the Chinese Tang Dynasty published government news; it was handwritten on silk and read by government officials. In 1582, there was the first reference to privately published newssheets in Beijing, during the late Ming Dynasty.^[6]

In early modern Europe, the increased cross-border interaction created a rising need for information which was met by concise handwritten news-sheets. In 1556, the government of Venice first published the monthly notizie scritte, which cost one gazette, a small coin.^[7] These avvisi were handwritten newsletters and used to convey political, military, and economic news quickly and efficiently to Italian cities (1500–1700)—sharing some characteristics of newspapers though usually not considered true newspapers.^[8] However, none of these publications fully met the classical criteria for proper newspapers, as they were typically not intended for the general public and restricted to a certain range of topics.

Newspapers

Main article: History of newspaper publishing

See also: List of the earliest newspapers and Newspaper production process

Europe

See also: History of British newspapers

The first mechanical, movable type printing that allowed the mass production of printed books was invented by Johann Gutenberg. In the 50 years after Gutenberg started printing, an estimated 500,000 books were in circulation, printed on about 1,000 presses across the continent. Gutenberg's invention was a simple device, but it launched a revolution marked by repeated advances in technology and, as a result, a popularization of the ideals of liberty and freedom of information exchange.^[9]
Title page of Carolus' Relation from 1609, the earliest newspaper

The emergence of the new media in the 17th century has to be seen in close connection with the spread of the printing press from which the publishing press derives its name.^[10] The German-language Relation aller Fürnemmen und gedenckwürdigen Historien, printed from 1605 onwards by Johann Carolus in Strasbourg, is often recognized as the first newspaper.^[11][12] At the time, Strasbourg was a free imperial city in the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation; the first newspaper of modern Germany was the Avisa, published in 1609 in Wolfenbüttel. They distinguished themselves from other printed material by being published on a regular basis. They reported on a variety of current events to a broad public audience. Within a few decades, newspapers could be found in all the major cities of Europe, from Venice to London.

The Dutch Courante uyt Italien, Duytslandt, &c. ('Courant from Italy, Germany, etc.') of 1618 was the first to appear in folio- rather than quarto-size. Amsterdam, a center of world trade, quickly became home to newspapers in many languages, often before they were published in their own country.^[13] The first English-language newspaper, Corrant out of Italy, Germany, etc., was published in Amsterdam in 1620. A year and a half later, Corante, or weekely newes from Italy, Germany, Hungary, Poland, Bohemia, France and the Low Countreys. was published in England by an "N.B." (generally thought to be either Nathaniel Butter or Nicholas Bourne) and Thomas Archer.^[14] The first newspaper in France was published in 1631, La Gazette (originally published as Gazette de France).^[7] The first newspaper in Italy, in accordance with the oldest issue still preserved, was Di Genova published in 1639 in Genoa.^[15] The first newspaper in Portugal, A Gazeta da Restauração, was published in 1641 in Lisbon.^[16] The first Spanish newspaper, Gaceta de Madrid, was published in 1661.

Post- och Inrikes Tidningar (founded as Ordinari Post Tijdender) was first published in Sweden in 1645, and is the oldest newspaper still in existence, though it now publishes solely online.^[17] Opregte Haarlemsche Courant from Haarlem, first published in 1656, is the oldest paper still printed. It was forced to merge with the newspaper Haarlems Dagblad in 1942 when Germany occupied the Netherlands. Since then the Haarlems Dagblad has appeared with the subtitle Oprechte Haerlemse Courant 1656. Merkuriusz Polski Ordynaryjny was published in Kraków, Poland in 1661. The first successful English daily, The Daily Courant, was published from 1702 to 1735.^[13][18]

Americas

See also: History of American newspapers

Diario de Pernambuco, founded in November 1825 is the second oldest circulating newspaper in South America, after El Peruano, founded in October of that same year.

In Boston in 1690, Benjamin Harris published Publick Occurrences Both Forreign and Domestick. This is considered the first newspaper in the American colonies even though only one edition was published before the paper was suppressed by the government. In 1704, the governor allowed The Boston News-Letter to be published and it became the first continuously published newspaper in the colonies. Soon after, weekly papers began publishing in New York and Philadelphia. These early newspapers followed the British format and were usually four pages long. They mostly carried news from Britain and content depended on the editor's interests. In 1783, the Pennsylvania Evening Post became the first American daily.^[19]

In 1752, John Bushell published the Halifax Gazette, which claims to be "Canada's first newspaper." However, its official descendant, the Royal Gazette, is a government publication for legal notices and proclamations rather than a proper newspaper; In 1764, the Quebec Gazette was first printed 21 June 1764 and remains the oldest continuously published newspaper in North America as the Quebec Chronicle-Telegraph. It is currently published as an English-language weekly from its offices at 1040 Belvédère, suite 218, Quebec City, Quebec, Canada. In 1808, the Gazeta do Rio de Janeiro^[20] had its first edition, printed in devices brought from England, publishing news favourable for the government of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves since it was produced by the official press service of the Portuguese crown.

In 1821, after the ending of the ban of private newspaper circulation, appears the first non-imperial printed publication, Diário do Rio de Janeiro, though there existed already the Correio Braziliense, published by Hipólito José da Costa at the same time as the Gazeta, but from London and with forcefully advocated political and critical ideas, aiming to expose the administration's flaws. The first newspaper in Peru was El Peruano, established in October 1825 and still published today, but with several name changes.

Asia

Main articles: Print media in India, Japanese newspapers, and History of Chinese newspapers

During the Tang Dynasty in China (618–906), the Kaiyuan Za Bao published the government news; it was block-printed onto paper. It is sometimes considered one of the earliest newspapers to be published.^[21] The first recorded attempt to found a newspaper of the modern type in South Asia was by William Bolts, a Dutchman in the employ of the British East India Company in September 1768 in Calcutta. However, before he could begin his newspaper, he was deported back to Europe. In 1780 the first newsprint from this region, Hicky's Bengal Gazette, was published by an Irishman, James Augustus Hicky. He used it as a means to criticize the British rule through journalism.^[22]

Middle East

Main article: History of Middle Eastern newspapers

The history of Middle Eastern newspapers goes back to the 19th century. Many editors were not only journalists but also writers, philosophers and politicians. With unofficial journals, these intellectuals encouraged public discourse on politics in the Ottoman and Persian Empires. Literary works of all genres were serialized and published in the press as well.

The first newspapers in the Ottoman Empire were owned by foreigners living there who wanted to make propaganda about the Western world.^[23] The earliest was printed in 1795 by the Palais de France in Pera. Indigenous Middle Eastern journalism started in 1828, when Muhammad Ali, Khedive of Egypt, ordered the local establishment of the gazette Vekayi-i Misriye (Egyptian Affairs).^[24] It was first paper written in Ottoman Turkish and Arabic on opposite pages, and later in Arabic only, under the title "al-Waqa'i'a al-Masriya".^[25]

The first non-official Turkish newspaper, Ceride-i Havadis (Register of Events), was published by an Englishman, William Churchill, in 1840. The first private newspaper to be published by Turkish journalists, Tercüman-ı Ahvâl (Interpreter of Events), was founded by İbrahim Şinasi and Agah Efendi and issued in 1860.^[26] The first newspaper in Iran, Kaghaz-e Akhbar (The Newspaper), was created for the government by Mirza Saleh Shirazi in 1837.^[27] The first journals in the Arabian Peninsula appeared in Hijaz, once it had become independent of Ottoman rule, towards the end of World War I.One of the earliest women to sign her articles in the Arab press was the female medical practitioner Galila Tamarhan, who contributed articles to a medical magazine called "Ya'asub al-Tib" (Leader in Medicine) in the 1860s.^[28]

Industrial Revolution

By the early 19th century, many cities in Europe, as well as North and South America, published newspaper-type publications though not all of them developed in the same way; content was vastly shaped by regional and cultural preferences.^[29] Advances in printing technology related to the Industrial Revolution enabled newspapers to become an even more widely circulated means of communication, as new printing technologies made printing less expensive and more efficient. In 1814, The Times (London) acquired a printing press capable of making 1,100 impressions per hour.^[30] Soon, this press was adapted to print on both sides of a page at once. This innovation made newspapers cheaper and thus available to a larger part of the population.

In 1830, the first inexpensive "penny press" newspaper came to the market: Lynde M. Walter's Boston Transcript.^[31] Penny press papers cost about one sixth the price of other newspapers and appealed to a wider audience, including less educated and lower-income people.^[32] In France, Émile de Girardin started "La Presse" in 1836, introducing cheap, advertising-supported dailies to France. In 1848, August Zang, an Austrian who knew Girardin in Paris, returned to Vienna to introduce the same methods with "Die Presse" (which was named for and frankly copied Girardin's publication).^[33]

Categories

While most newspapers are aimed at a broad spectrum of readers, usually geographically defined, some focus on groups of readers defined more by their interests than their location: for example, there are daily and weekly business newspapers (e.g., The Wall Street Journal and India Today) and sports newspapers. More specialist still are some weekly newspapers, usually free and distributed within limited regional areas; these may serve communities as specific as certain immigrant populations, the local gay community or indie rock enthusiasts within a city or region.

Frequency

Daily

A daily newspaper is printed every day, sometimes with the exception of Sundays and occasionally Saturdays, (and some major holidays)^[34] and often of some national holidays. Saturday and, where they exist, Sunday editions of daily newspapers tend to be larger, include more specialized sections (e.g., on arts, films, entertainment) and advertising inserts, and cost more. Typically, the majority of these newspapers' staff members work Monday to Friday, so the Sunday and Monday editions largely depend on content done in advance or content that is syndicated. Most daily newspapers are sold in the morning.

Afternoon or evening papers, once common but now scarce, are aimed more at commuters and office workers. In practice (though this may vary according to country), a morning newspaper is available in early editions from before midnight on the night before its cover date, further editions being printed and distributed during the night. The later editions can include breaking news which was first revealed that day, after the morning edition was already printed. Previews of tomorrow's newspapers are often a feature of late night news programs, such as Newsnight in the United Kingdom. In 1650, the first daily newspaper appeared, Einkommende Zeitung,^[35] published by Timotheus Ritzsch in Leipzig, Germany.^[36]

In the United Kingdom, unlike most other countries, "daily" newspapers do not publish on Sundays. In the past there were independent Sunday newspapers; nowadays the same publisher often produces a Sunday newspaper, distinct in many ways from the daily, usually with a related name; e.g., The Times and The Sunday Times are distinct newspapers owned by the same company, and an article published in the latter would never be credited to The Times.

GAZETALAR

A gazeta bir emas davriy nashr yozilgan o'z ichiga joriy voqealar haqidagi ma'lumotlarni va ko'pincha oq yoki kulrang fon qora siyoh bilan yozilgan.

Gazetalar siyosat, biznes, sport va san'at kabi turli sohalarni qamrab olishi mumkin va ko'pincha fikrlar, ob-havo ma'lumotlari, mahalliy xizmatlarning sharhlari, obituriyentlar , tug'ilganlik to'g'risidagi xabarlar, krossvordlar , muharrir multfilmlari , kulgili chiziqlar va maslahatlar kabi materiallarni o'z ichiga oladi. ustunlar.

Aksariyat gazetalar biznesdir va ular o'z xarajatlarini obuna tushumlari, gazeta do'konlarining sotuvi va reklama daromadlari aralashmasi bilan to'laydilar . Jurnalistika gazeta nashr tashkilotlar o'zlari ko'pincha metonymically chaqirdi gazeta.

Gazetalar an'anaviy ravishda bosma nashrlar bilan nashr etila boshlandi (odatda arzon, past navli gazetalarda , gazetalar nomi ). Biroq, bugungi kunda eng gazeta ham qilingan nashr ustida veb-saytlar kabi onlayn gazeta , va ba'zi hatto ularning Bosma uchun butunlay unutdilar.

Gazetalar 17-asrda ishbilarmonlar uchun ma'lumot varaqalari sifatida rivojlandi. 19-asr boshlariga kelib Evropaning ko'plab shaharlari, shuningdek Shimoliy va Janubiy Amerikada gazetalar nashr etildi.

Tahririyat mustaqilligi yuqori, jurnalistikaning yuqori sifati va katta tiraji bo'lgan ba'zi gazetalar yozuv gazetalari sifatida qaraladi .

Umumiy nuqtai

Gazetalar odatda har kuni yoki haftada nashr etiladi . Yangilik jurnallari ham haftalik, ammo ular jurnal formatiga ega. Odatda qiziqish uyg'otadigan gazetalar odatda yangiliklar va mahalliy va xalqaro yangiliklarga, shuningdek mahalliy yangiliklarga bag'ishlangan maqolalarni nashr etadi . Yangiliklarda siyosiy voqealar va shaxsiyatlar , biznes va moliya , jinoyatchilik, ob-havo va tabiiy ofatlar; sog'liqni saqlash va tibbiyot , fan va kompyuterlar va texnologiyalar; sport ; va o'yin-kulgi , jamiyat , oziq-ovqat va pishirish, kiyim-kechak va uy moda va san'at .

Odatda qog'oz ushbu asosiy guruhlarning har biri uchun bo'limlarga bo'linadi (A, B, C va hokazolar bilan belgilanadi, sahifalar raqamlari A1-A20, B1-B20, C1-C20 va hokazolarga ega bo'lgan pagatsiya prefikslari bilan). Eng an'anaviy hujjatlar, shuningdek, tahririyat o'z ichiga olgan sahifaga xususiyati bosh , fikr maqolalar "deb nomlangan bir muharrir tomonidan yozilgan (yoki qog'oz ning tahririyati tomonidan) va jamoat masala haqida fikr OP-elektron raqamli imzodan " Shu odatda mehmon yozuvchi (tomonidan yozilgan yozuv sifatida qism), va ustunlar shaxsiy fikrlarini ifoda sharhlovchi , odatda tahlil qilish va urinishlar xom tarjima qilish, deb sintezini taklif ma'lumotlar o'quvchini "nima u barcha vositalarni" jonli va sababli ularni ko'ndirishga axborot kirib yangiliklar. Qog'ozlar, shuningdek, hech qanday bor maqolalar o'z ichiga imzolarini ; ushbu maqolalar xodimlar yozuvchilari tomonidan yozilgan.

Gazetalarda turli xil materiallar chop etildi. Yuqorida aytilgan yangiliklar, ma'lumotlar va fikrlardan tashqari, ular ob-havo ma'lumotlarini ham o'z ichiga oladi; san'at (jumladan adabiyot , kino , televidenie , teatr , tasviriy san'at va arxitektura ) va restoran kabi mahalliy xizmatlarning tanqid va sharhlari ; obituarlari , tug'ilganlik to'g'risidagi xabarlar va bitiruv to'g'risidagi e'lonlar; krossvordlar, munajjimlar bashorati, muharrir multfilmlari , gag multfilmlari va hajviy chiziqlar kabi ko'ngilochar xususiyatlar ; maslahat ustunlari, oziq-ovqat va boshqa ustunlar; va radio va televidenie ro'yxatlari (dasturlar jadvallari). 2017 yildan boshlab, gazetalar Netflix kabi oqimli video xizmatlarida mavjud bo'lgan yangi filmlar va teleko'rsatuvlar haqida ma'lumot berishi mumkin . Gazetalar reklama bo'limlarini tasnifladi, unda odamlar va korxonalar tovarlar yoki xizmatlarni sotish uchun kichik reklama sotib olishlari mumkin; 2013 yil holatiga ko'ra, Craigslist va eBay kabi tovarlarni sotish bo'yicha Internet- saytlarning juda ko'payishi gazetalarning reklama bo'yicha reklamani sezilarli darajada kamaytirdi.

Aksariyat gazetalar biznesdir va ular o'z xarajatlarini obuna daromadi, gazeta do'konlaridagi savdo va reklama daromadlari aralashmasi bilan to'laydilar (boshqa korxonalar yoki shaxslar reklama sahifalarini joylashtirish uchun, shu jumladan reklama e'lonlarini , mahfiy reklamalarni va ularning onlayn ekvivalentlarini ). Ba'zi gazetalar hukumat tomonidan boshqariladi yoki hech bo'lmaganda hukumat tomonidan moliyalashtiriladi; ularning reklama daromadlari va rentabellikka ishonishlari ularning omon qolishlari uchun unchalik muhim emas. Gazeta tahririyatining mustaqilligi har doim kimningdir egalari, reklama beruvchilari yoki hukumatning manfaatlariga bo'ysunadi . Tahririyat mustaqilligi yuqori, jurnalistikaning yuqori sifati va katta tiraji bo'lgan ba'zi gazetalar yozuv gazetalari sifatida qaraladi .

Ko'plab gazetalar, o'zlarining ish haqi hisobotlarida jurnalistlarni yollashdan tashqari, yangiliklarni topish, yig'ish va hisobot berish uchun jurnalistlarni jalb qiladigan axborot agentliklariga (masalan, Assoshieytid Press , Reuters yoki Agence France-Presse ) obuna bo'lishadi. tarkibni turli gazetalarga sotish . Bu dunyoning turli mamlakatlaridan kelgan xabarlarni takrorlashning oldini olishning bir usuli. 2005 yilda dunyoda kuniga 5,580 kunlik gazeta nomlari mavjud bo'lib, kuniga 395 million nusxa sotiladi (AQShda 1450 nomdagi 55 million nusxani sotadi ). ^[1] 2000-yillar boshida 2010-lar kech global retsessiya ko'p hujjatlar yo'qotishlarni stanch uchun operatsiyalarini kamaytirmoq uchun edi bepul veb asoslangan muqobil tez o'sishi bilan birga, reklama va muomaladagi bir pasayishiga sabab yordam berdi. ^[2] Dunyo bo'yicha yillik daromad 2005-2007 yillarda 100 milliard dollarga yaqinlashdi , keyin 2008-9 yillardagi jahon moliyaviy inqirozi davrida o'sdi. 2016 yilda daromad atigi 53 milliard dollarga tushdi , bu har bir yirik nashriyotni zarar ko'rdi, chunki ularning onlayn daromad olish harakatlari maqsadga etishmadi. ^[3]   

Reklama daromadlarining pasayishi bosma va onlayn ommaviy axborot vositalariga, shuningdek, boshqa vositalarga ta'sir ko'rsatdi; bosma reklama bir paytlar foydali bo'lgan, ammo sezilarli darajada pasaygan va onlayn reklama narxi ko'pincha ularning bosib chiqarish prekursorlariga qaraganda ancha past. Reklama biçimlenme Bundan tashqari, internet (ayniqsa, veb ) ham Chop etish-faqat davrning biznes modellarni rad etdi wordpress umuman (almashish boshqalar bilan ma'lumot) va yana o'ziga xos, har ikki nashr jurnalistika , (ajrimda ishini yig'ish va yangiliklarni xabar qilish). Bundan tashqari, ko'plab onlayn gazetalar va boshqa manbalardagi maqolalarni bog'laydigan yangiliklar to'plagichlarining ko'payishi veb-trafik oqimiga ta'sir qiladi . Oshirish paywalling onlayn gazeta bo'lgan oqibatlarini qarshi bo'lishi mumkin. 1645 yilda Stokgolmda tashkil etilgan Ordinari Post Tijdender gazetasi hali ham nashr etilgan .

Ta'riflar

Gazetalar odatda to'rtta mezonga javob beradi : ^{[4] [5]}

• 
  Jamoatchilik uchun ochiqlik: Uning mazmuni an'anaviy ravishda gazeta do'konlarida, do'konlarda va kutubxonalarda sotiladigan yoki tarqatiladigan va 1990 yillardan boshlab Internetda gazeta veb-saytlari bilan Internetga chiqariladigan qog'ozlar orqali ommaga ochiqdir . Onlayn gazetalar Internetga kirish, internet yoki kompyuter kirish bo'lmagan kishi (masalan, bilan odamlar tomonidan gazeta kirish oshdi-da boshpanasiz odamlar , qashshoqlik va qiyinchiliklar odamlar uzoq yoki qishloq hududlarida yashayotgan va odamlarning mumkin Internetga kirish imkoniyatiga ega bo'lmaydi , va shunday qilib bo'lmaydi onlayn yangiliklarni o'qiy oladigan). Savodxonlik shuningdek o'qiy olmaydigan odamlarning gazeta (qog'oz yoki Internet) o'qishdan foyda olishiga to'sqinlik qiluvchi omil hisoblanadi .
  
• 
  Davriylik : Ular muntazam ravishda, odatda har kuni yoki haftada nashr etiladi. Bu gazeta yangi paydo bo'lgan yangiliklar yoki voqealar haqida ma'lumot berishni ta'minlaydi.
  
• 
  Valyuta: uning ma'lumotlari nashr etish jadvali imkoni boricha yangilanadi. Bosma gazetaning zamonaviyligi darajasi gazetani chop etish va tarqatish uchun vaqt kerakligi bilan cheklangan. Yirik shaharlarda, keyinchalik nashr kiritish mumkin, shuning uchun, bu, bir kuni ertalab nashr va shu kunning qog'oz keyinchalik nashr bo'lishi mumkin sindirish yangiliklar bor ertalab nashr chop etildi buyon sodir bo'lgan. Onlayn gazetalarni yangi ma'lumotlar paydo bo'lishi bilan tez-tez yangilab turish mumkin, hatto kuniga bir necha marta, bu onlayn nashrlarning juda zamonaviy bo'lishi mumkinligini anglatadi.
  
• 
  Umumjahonlik: Gazetalar siyosiy va biznes yangiliklaridan tortib fan va texnika, san'at, madaniyat va ko'ngilochar yangiliklarga qadar turli mavzularni yoritadi.
  

Tarix

Gazeta va byulletenlar

Yilda Qadimgi Rim , Acta Diurna yoki hukumat e'lon byulletenlari, ishlab chiqarildi. Ular metall yoki toshga o'yilgan va jamoat joylariga osilgan. Xitoyda Dibao deb nomlangan ilk hukumat tomonidan nashr etilgan varaqalar marhum Xan sulolasi davrida (eramizning ikkinchi va uchinchi asrlari) sud amaldorlari o'rtasida tarqatilgan . 713 va 734 yillar orasida Xitoy Tang sulolasining Kaiyuan Za Bao ("Sud byulleteni") hukumat yangiliklarini e'lon qildi; u ipakka yozilgan va hukumat amaldorlari tomonidan o'qilgan . 1582 yilda Pekinda marhum Minglar sulolasi davrida shaxsiy nashr etilgan yangi varaqalar to'g'risida birinchi bor ma'lumot berilgan . ^[6]

In erta zamonaviy Evropa , transchegaraviy o'zaro qisqa qo'lyozma yangiliklari-jadvallari kutib oldi ma'lumot uchun chiqish zarurligini yaratilgan oshdi. 1556 yilda Venetsiya hukumati birinchi marta bitta gazeta , kichik tanga turadigan notizie skriptlarini nashr etdi . ^[7] Ushbu avvisi qo'lda yozilgan axborot byulletenlari bo'lib , siyosiy, harbiy va iqtisodiy yangiliklarni Italiyaning shaharlariga tez va samarali etkazishda ishlatilgan (1500–1700) - gazetalarning ba'zi xususiyatlari bilan bo'lishgan, ammo ular haqiqiy gazetalar hisoblanmasa ham. ^[8] , ular, odatda, keng jamoatchilik uchun mo'ljallangan va mavzularga ma'lum bir qator cheklangan emas edi, deb Biroq, bu nashrlar hech to'liq, to'g'ri gazeta uchun klassik mezonlarini uchrashdi.

Gazetalar

Asosiy maqola: Gazeta nashr etish tarixi

Shuningdek qarang: Dastlabki gazetalar ro'yxati va gazetalarni tayyorlash jarayoni

Evropa

Shuningdek qarang: Britaniya gazetalari tarixi

Bosma kitoblarni ommaviy ishlab chiqarishga imkon beradigan birinchi mexanik, harakatchan bosma nashr Yoxann Gutenberg tomonidan ixtiro qilingan . Gutenberg bosib chiqarishni boshlaganidan keyin 50 yil o'tgach, qit'ada qariyb 1000 ta bosma nashrda 500000 ga yaqin kitob tirajda bo'lgan. Gutenbergning ixtirosi oddiy qurilma edi, ammo u texnologiyaning qayta-qayta rivojlanishi va natijada erkinlik va axborot almashish erkinligi g'oyalarini ommalashtirish bilan boshlangan inqilobni boshladi. ^[9]

 

Carolus munosabatlarining 1609 yildagi birinchi sahifasi , eng qadimgi gazetalar

17-asrda yangi axborot vositalarining paydo bo'lishi bilan yaqin aloqadorligi ko'rgan bo'lishi kerak bosma matbuot tarqalishi chop qaysi matbuot nomi kelib chiqadi. ^[10] nemis tilidagi Fürnemmen aller munosabatingiz Historien gedenckwürdigen und tomonidan boshlab 1605 dan bosilgan, Johann Carolus yilda Strasburgda ko'pincha birinchi gazetasi sifatida e'tirof etilgan. ^{[11] [12]} O'sha paytda Strasburg nemis millatining Muqaddas Rim imperiyasida erkin imperiya shahri edi ; birinchi gazetasi zamonaviy Germaniyada edi Avisa yilda 1609 yilda chop etilgan, Wolfenbüttel . Ular o'zlarini boshqa bosma materiallardan doimiy ravishda nashr etilishi bilan ajralib turishdi. Ular turli xil joriy voqealar to'g'risida keng omma oldida hisobot berishdi. Bir necha o'n yilliklar ichida gazetalarni Evropaning barcha yirik shaharlarida - Venetsiyadan Londongacha topish mumkin edi.

Gollandiyaning Courante uyt Italien, Dyutslandt va boshqalar. 1618 yildagi ("Italiya, Germaniya kuranti " va boshqalar) kvarto o'lchamida emas, balki folioda birinchi bo'lib paydo bo'ldi . Dunyo savdo markazi bo'lgan Amsterdam tezda ko'plab mamlakatlarda nashr etilishidan oldin tez-tez ko'plab tillarda nashr etiladigan gazetalarning uyiga aylandi. ^[13] Ilk ingliz tilidagi gazetasi - " Corrant" Italiya, Germaniya va hk. , Amsterdamda 1620 yilda nashr etildi. Bir yarim yil o'tgach, Korante yoki Italiya, Germaniya, Vengriya, Polsha, Bogemiya, va har haftada nashr etiladigan gazetalar. Frantsiya va Quyi grafliklar. edi bir "NB" tomonidan Angliyada chop etilgan (odatda yo deb Nataniel Yog' yoki Nikolas Bourne va) Tomas Archer . ^[14] Frantsiyadagi birinchi gazeta 1631 yilda La Gazette (dastlab Gazette de France nomi bilan nashr etilgan) bosilgan . ^[7] Italiyadagi birinchi gazeta, hanuzgacha saqlanib qolgan eng qadimgi nashrga ko'ra , 1639 yilda Genuyada nashr etilgan Di Genova . ^[15] Portugaliyadagi birinchi gazeta "Gazeta da Restauração " 1641 yilda Lissabonda bosilgan . ^[16] Birinchi ispan gazetasi, Gaceta de Madrid , 1661 yilda bosilgan.

Post- och Inrikes Tidningar ( Ordinari Post Tijdender nomi bilan asos solingan ) birinchi marta 1645 yilda Shvetsiyada nashr etilgan va u hozirgi kunda eng qadimgi gazetadir, ammo hozirda u faqat Internetda nashr etilmoqda. ^[17] Opregte Haarlemsche Courant dan Haarlem birinchi 1656 yilda chop etilgan, hali chop eng qadimgi qog'oz bo'ladi. 1942 yilda Germaniya Gollandiyani bosib olganida, Haarlems Dagblad gazetasi bilan birlashishga majbur bo'ldi . O'shandan beri Haarlems Dagblad 1656 Oprechte Haerlemse Courant subtitrida paydo bo'ldi . "Merkuriyts Polski Ordynaryjny " 1661 yilda Polshaning Krakov shahrida nashr etilgan. Birinchi muvaffaqiyatli inglizcha "Daily Courant" gazetasi 1702 yildan 1735 yilgacha nashr etilgan. ^{[13] [18]}

Amerika

Shuningdek qarang: Amerika gazetalari tarixi

 

Diario de Pernambuko , 1825 yil noyabr oyida tashkil etilgan, o'sha yilning oktyabr oyida tashkil topgan El Peruanodan keyin Janubiy Amerikadagi ikkinchi eng qadimgi tirajli gazetadir .

Bostonda 1690 yilda Benjamin Xarris " Oldingi va uydagi" deb nomlangan " Ommaviy tadbirlar" nashrini nashr etdi . Bu Amerika koloniyalaridagi birinchi gazeta hisoblanadi, garchi hukumat tomonidan bostirilgunga qadar bittagina nashr qilingan bo'lsa ham. 1704 yilda gubernator Bostonda News-Letter nashr etishga ruxsat berdi va bu mustamlakalarda doimiy ravishda chop etiladigan birinchi gazeta bo'ldi. Ko'p o'tmay, Nyu-York va Filadelfiyada haftalik gazetalar nashr etila boshladi. Ushbu dastlabki gazetalar ingliz formatida yozilgan va odatda to'rt sahifadan iborat edi. Ular asosan Britaniyadan yangiliklar olib borishdi va tarkib muharrirning manfaatlariga bog'liq edi. 1783 yilda Pensilvaniya Evening Post gazetasi birinchi Amerikalik kundalik nashr bo'ldi. ^[19]

1752'de, Jon Bushell chop Halifax Gazette deb da'vo, "Kanadaning birinchi gazetasi". Biroq, uning rasmiy avlodi, " Qirollik gazetasi" , tegishli gazetani emas, balki qonuniy xabarlar va e'lonlarni tarqatadigan hukumat nashridir; Yilda 1764, Kvebek Axborotnomasi birinchi 1764 21 iyun bosma va Shimoliy Amerikada eng qadimgi doimiy chop gazetasi qolmoqda edi Kvebek Chronicle-Telegraph . Hozirda u har hafta ingliz tilida nashr etiladi, 1040 Belvédère, 218-son, Kvebek-Siti, Kvebek, Kanada. 1808 yilda gazeta do Rio-de-Janeyro ^[20] o'zining birinchi nashrini Angliyadan olib kelingan asboblarda chop etdi , Portugaliya, Braziliya va Algarves Birlashgan Qirolligi hukumati uchun yoqimli yangiliklarni e'lon qildi, chunki u rasmiy matbuot xizmati tomonidan nashr etilgan. portugal toji.

1821 yilda xususiy gazeta tirajini taqiqlash tugaganidan keyin birinchi imperial bo'lmagan bosma nashr - Diário do Rio de Janeiro chiqadi , garchi allaqachon Coripo Braziliense mavjud bo'lsa-da, Hipolito Jose Da Costa tomonidan bir vaqtning o'zida Gazeta tomonidan nashr etilgan. , ammo Londondan va ma'muriyatning kamchiliklarini fosh etish maqsadida siyosiy va tanqidiy g'oyalarni qat'iy ravishda targ'ib qilgan. Perudagi birinchi gazeta El Peruano bo'lib , 1825 yil oktyabr oyida tashkil etilgan va hozirgacha nashr etiladi, ammo bir nechta nom o'zgarishi bilan.

Osiyo

Asosiy maqolalar: Hindistondagi bosma nashrlar , Yaponiya gazetalari va Xitoy gazetalari tarixi

Davomida Tang sulolasi Xitoyda (618-906), Kaiyuan Za Bao hukumat yangiliklar chop; u qog'ozga blok shaklida bosilgan . Ba'zan u e'lon qilinadigan eng qadimgi gazetalardan biri hisoblanadi. ^[21] Janubiy Osiyoda zamonaviy tipdagi gazetani topishga birinchi urinish 1768 yil sentyabrda Kalkutta shahrida Buyuk Britaniyaning Sharqiy Hindiston kompaniyasida hollandiyalik Uilyam Bolts tomonidan amalga oshirildi . Biroq, u o'z gazetasini ochishdan oldin uni Evropaga qaytarishdi. 1780 yilda ushbu mintaqadan birinchi xabarnoma , Xikining Bengal gazetasi , irlandiyalik Jeyms Avgustus Xikki tomonidan nashr etilgan . U bundan jurnalistika orqali Britaniya qoidalarini tanqid qilish vositasi sifatida foydalangan. ^[22]

yaqin Sharq

Asosiy maqola: Yaqin Sharq gazetalari tarixi

Yaqin Sharq gazetalarining tarixi 19-asrga borib taqaladi. Ko'plab muharrirlar nafaqat jurnalistlar, balki yozuvchilar, faylasuflar va siyosatchilar edi. Norasmiy jurnallarda bu ziyolilar Usmonli va Fors imperiyalaridagi siyosat haqida jamoatchilikning chiqishlarini qo'llab-quvvatladilar . Barcha janrdagi badiiy asarlar seriyalashtirilib, matbuotda chop etildi.

Usmonli imperiyasining birinchi gazetalari u erda yashagan chet elliklarga tegishli bo'lib, ular G'arb dunyosi haqida targ'ibot qilmoqchi edilar. ^[23] Eng qadimiylari 1795 yilda Perada Palais de Frans tomonidan bosilgan . Yaqin Sharqdagi mahalliy jurnalistika 1828 yilda , Misrning Khedivisi Muhammad Ali mahalliy " Vekayi-i Misriye" ( Misr ishlari ) gazetasini tashkil etishga buyruq berganida boshlandi . ^[24] Bu dastlab Usmonli turk va arab tillarida qarama-qarshi sahifalarda, keyinchalik faqat arab tilida " al-Vaqa'i al-Masriya " nomi ostida yozilgan . ^[25]

Birinchi rasmiy turk gazetasi " Ceride-i Havadis" (Voqealar ro'yxati), ingliz Uilyam Cherchill tomonidan 1840 yilda nashr etilgan. Turk jurnalistlari tomonidan nashr etilgan birinchi xususiy gazeta Tercuman-i Ahval (Voqealar tarjimoni). Ibrohim Shinasi va Agah Afandi tomonidan asos solingan va 1860 yilda nashr etilgan. ^[26] Eronda birinchi gazeta " Kag'az-e Akhbar" (Gazeta) hukumat tomonidan 1837 yilda Mirza Solih Shirazi tomonidan tashkil etilgan . ^[27] Ilk jurnallar yilda Arabiston yarim orolida paydo Hijoz u Arab matbuotida uning maqolalar imzo erta ayollar jahon urushi I.One oxirida, ayol tibbiy amaliyot Usmonli hukmronligi mustaqil bo'ldi aylandi marta, Galila Tamarhan uchun maqolalar hissa, 1860 yillarda " Yaasub al-Tib " (tibbiyotdagi etakchi) nomli tibbiy jurnal . ^[28]

Sanoat inqilobi

19-asr boshlariga kelib Evropaning ko'plab shaharlari, shuningdek Shimoliy va Janubiy Amerikada gazeta tipidagi nashrlar nashr etildi, ammo ularning barchasi bir xil rivojlanmagan; tarkib mintaqa va madaniy manfaatlarga bog'liq edi. ^[29] Sanoat inqilobi bilan bog'liq bosib chiqarish texnologiyasining rivojlanishi gazetalarni yanada keng tarqalgan aloqa vositasi bo'lishiga imkon berdi, chunki yangi bosib chiqarish texnologiyalari bosib chiqarishni arzon va samaraliroq qildi. 1814 yilda The Times (London) soatiga 1100 ta taassurot qoldiradigan bosma nashrga ega bo'ldi. ^[30] Ko'p o'tmay, bu bir marta bosing, bir sahifada, har ikki tomon chop etish moslashgan edi. Ushbu yangilik gazetalarni arzonlashtirdi va shu tariqa aholining katta qismiga taqdim etildi.

1830 yilda bozorga birinchi arzon " penni press " gazetasi keldi: Linda M. Uolterning Bostondagi tarjimasi . ^[31] Penni matbuot qog'ozlar bir oltinchi haqida turadi narxi boshqa gazeta va kam ma'lumotli va kam ta'minlangan insonlar, shu jumladan, kengroq auditoriyada, murojaat qildi. ^[32] Frantsiyada, Emile de Girardin " La Presse " ni 1836 yilda ochib, Frantsiyaga arzon va reklama bilan nashr etiladigan nashrlarni taqdim etdi. 1848 yilda Avgust Zang , Parijda Girardinni bilgan avstriyalik, " Die Presse " (Girardinning nashriga nomini olgan va ochiqchasiga ko'chirilgan) bilan xuddi shu usullarni tanishtirish uchun Vena shahriga qaytib keldi . ^[33]

Toifalar

Ko'pgina gazetalar odatda o'quvchilar keng doirasiga yo'naltirilgan bo'lsa-da, odatda ular geografik jihatdan aniqlanadi, ba'zilari esa joylashishidan ko'ra ko'proq qiziqishlari bo'yicha aniqlanadigan o'quvchilar guruhlariga e'tiborni qaratadi: masalan, kundalik va haftalik ishbilarmon gazetalar (masalan, The Wall Street Journal va Hindiston) Bugun ) va sport gazetalari. Ko'pgina mutaxassislar hanuzgacha haftalik gazetalar bo'lib, ular odatda bepul va cheklangan mintaqalarda tarqatiladi; ular ba'zi bir muhojir populyatsiyalar, mahalliy geylar jamoalari yoki shahardagi yoki mintaqadagi hindistonlik tosh havaskorlar kabi o'ziga xos jamoalarga xizmat qilishi mumkin .

Chastotani

Har kuni

A kundalik gazeta , ba'zan yakshanba tashqari va vaqti-vaqti bilan shanba, (va ba'zi yirik bayramlar bilan, har kuni chop etiladi ) ^[34] ko'pincha ba'zi va milliy bayramlar . Shanba kuni va ular mavjud bo'lgan joyda , kundalik gazetalarning yakshanba sonlari ko'proq bo'lib, ko'proq ixtisoslashgan bo'limlarni (masalan, san'at, filmlar, ko'ngilochar mavzularda) va reklama qo'shimchalarini va boshqa xarajatlarni o'z ichiga oladi. Odatda, bu gazeta xodimlari ko'pchiligi a'zolari yakshanba va dushanba nashrlar ko'p jihatdan oldindan yoki sinditsiyalashtirilgan bo'ladi mundarijaga amalga mazmuniga bog'liq, shuning uchun, juma uchun Dushanba ishlaydi. Kundalik gazetalarning aksariyati ertalab sotiladi.

Peshindan keyin yoki kechqurun qog'ozlar, odatda keng tarqalgan, ammo hozir juda kam, ular ko'proq kommunal va ofis ishchilariga qaratilgan. (Bu mamlakatga ko'ra farq qilishi mumkin bo'lsa-da,) uning oldida kechasi yarim tunda oldin amalda, bir kuni ertalab gazeta erta nashrlarda mavjud qopqoq sana , yanada nashrlar chop etilmoqda va kecha davomida tarqatilgan. Keyingi nashrlarda , ertalab nashr etilgandan so'ng, o'sha kuni birinchi marta e'lon qilingan so'nggi yangiliklar kiritilishi mumkin . Ertangi gazetasi oldidan tez-tez kabi kech tunda xabar dasturlari, bir xususiyati bor Newsnight bilan Buyuk Britaniya . 1650 yilda birinchi kundalik gazeta paydo bo'ldi, Einkommende Zeitung , ^[35] Timotey Ritssh tomonidan Leyptsigda (Germaniya ⁾ nashr etilgan . ^[36]

Buyuk Britaniyada, aksariyat mamlakatlardan farqli o'laroq, "kunlik" gazetalar yakshanba kunlari nashr etilmaydi. Ilgari mustaqil yakshanba gazetalari mavjud edi; hozirgi kunda o'sha nashriyot ko'pincha yakshanba gazetasini chiqaradi , har kuni har xil jihatdan farq qiladi, odatda tegishli nomi bilan; masalan, The Times va The Sunday Times bir xil shirkatlarga tegishli bo'lgan alohida gazetalar va ularda nashr etilgan maqola hech qachon "The Times" ga berilmaydi .